4^ 


Preparedness   is   the  Shield  and  the   Sword. 
(See  page  225) 


Right  and  Duty 

OR 

Citizen  and  Soldier 

Switzerland 

Prepared    and  at    Peace 

A  MODEL  FOR  THE  UNITED  STATES 


FREDERICK   A.   KUENZLI 

Assistant  Appraiser  Port  of  New  York 

Graduate  of  Teachers'  College  of  Wettingen,  Switzerland,  and  of  the 

j^cole  Polytechnique  F6derale  at  Zurich,  Switzerland 

Formerly  an  Officer  of  the  Swiss  Army 


Published  by 

National  Defense   Institute 

Tribune  Bldg.,  New  York  City 

G.  E.  STECHERT  &  CO.,  Selling  Agents. 


Copyright  1916 
by  Frederick  A.  Kuenzli 


t.  c 


/  cannot  tell  you  what  the  international  relations  of 
this  country  will  be  to-morrow,  and  I  use  the  word  liter- 
ally; and  I  would  not  dare  keep  silent  and  let  the  country 
suppose  that  to-morrow  was  certain  to  he  as  bright  as 
to-day.  *  *  * 

We  think  first  of  peace,  we  think  of  the  Civilian  life, 
we  tntnk  first  of  industry;  we  want  the  men  who  are  going 
to  defend  the  Nation  to  be  immersed  in  these  pursuits 
or  tfea^e.  But  we  wantthem  to  knnm  l^n7ef^  Toih^ii.  qf^ 
casion  arises^  to  rally. to  the  assistance  nf  thp.  prnff.^^\Qnal 
soldier  of  the  country  and  show  the  nations  of  thejworld 
the  might' of  America.  *  *  * 

We  are  in  the  midst  of  a  world  that  we  did  not  make 
and  can  not  alter ;^its  atmospheric  and  physical  conditions 
are  the  conditions  of  our  own  life  also,  and  therefore,  as 
your  responsible  servant,  I  must  tell  you  that  the  dangers 
are  infinite  and  constant.  I  should  feel  that  I  was  guilty 
of  an  unpardonable  omission  if  I  did  not  go  out  and  tell 
my  fellow  countrymen  that  new  circumstances  have  arisen 
which  make  it  absolutely  necessary  that  this  country 
should  prepare  herself,  not  for  war,  not  for  anything 
that  smacks  in  the  least  of  aggression,  but  for  adequate 
national  defense.  *  *  * 

When  the  world  is  on  fire,  how  much  time  can  you 
afford  to  take  to  be  ready?  "^"^"^ 

— President  Woodrow  Wilson. 


357874 


*>         ''  *      »         *        *o 


HEADQUARTERS    EASTERN    DEPARTMENT 
GOVERNOR'S    ISLAND.     NEW    YORK   CITY 


November  /,  19 16, 

My  dear  Mr.  Kuenzli: 

I  return  herewith  your  manuscript  ''Right  and  Duty 
or  Citizen  and  Soldier^'  ''Switzerland  prepared  and  at 
peace,  a  model  for  the  United  States"  I  think  it  is  ex- 
cellent and  will  help  immensely  to  point  out  to  our  citi- 
zenry the  necessity  of  universal  training.  Your  synopsis 
of  Swiss  history,  Switzerland's  wonderful  democratic  in- 
stitutions and  legislation,  her  defense  system,  and  your 
patriotic  suggestions  should  be  read  by  every  American. 
Your  translation  of  the  whole  Military  Constitution  gives 
the  reader  a  deep  insight  of  the  character  of  the  brave, 
progressive,  patriotic  Szmss  nation. 

I  wish  the  book  the  largest  measure  of  success  and 
hope  you  will  keep  up  the  work  of  building  up  general 
interest  in  this  all-important  subject  of  military  pre- 
paredness. 

Sincerely  yours. 


/w/f^c-^^/f^^^^*^*-^ 


TJ NIVERSAL  military  ser'^^'^f  is  *hr  mily  uafv  ami 
— ■  yqmtable^basis  of  national  def^p.^p  ^Tt  r(innot  fcg 
universal  unless  it  is  compulsory.  The  volunteer  system 
is  a  failure  sometimes,  and  a  dangerous  expedient  always. 
Fijtends  to  sacrifice  noble  and  generous  youths  and  per- 
mit selfish  and  cowardly  citizens  to  shirk  their  duty     ^ 

The  more  the  Swiss  system  of  universal  compulsory 
military  service  is  studied,  the  more  it  is  seen  to  be  ap- 
plicable to  the  United  States.  There  is  no  injustice  or 
favoritism  in  it. 

It  createsjhe  greatest  possible  defense  against  emer- 
gency  with  the  least  possible  expense  of  time,  money  andT 
service. 

It  utilizes  to  the  full  the  manhood  strength  of  the 
nation^  l^iithauf  intrrfrntig  Trith  thr  prarrftd  purnnt'x  jcf 
the  people. 

TTjnergiSj^  and  builds  up  the  physique  and^siuzdwt/^ss 
of  its  men  without  making  them  professional  soldiers. 

— Louis  N.  Hammerling  in  the  American  Leader. 


(^UR  weakness  will  invite  attack,  so  preparedness  is 
not  only  the  sword,  hut  it  is  the  shield.  No  nation 
will  attack  us  if  we  are  strong,  an  insignificant  nation 
might  attack  us  if  we  are  weak;  so  preparedness  shall 
avert  war,  and,  therefore,  is  more  a  peace  measure  than 
a  war  measure. 

The  basis  of  preparedness  must  not  only  be  trained 
soldiery,  properly  officered,  but  in  the  training  of  our 
citizen-soldiery  in  the  schools  we  must  develop  not  only 
the  latent  material  resources  of  the  nation,  but  those  re- 
sources of  strength  and  patriotism  which  can  be  found 
best  in  the  education  of  the  youth,  and  in  the  discipline 
of  the  man. 

— U.  S.  Senator  Phelan,  Cal. 


PREFACE. 


T"f^R]^"p^  are  two  paths  to  |jrpp^r^Hnf^gc  -Or.^  Js  that 
of  militarism,  _and  is  repugnant  to  freemen.  It 
means  a  large  standing  army,  in  which  each  man 
would  be  compelled  to  serve  his  alloted  term  of  years. 
It  means  being  driven.  It  means  the  breaking  down  of 
equality,  of  democracy.  It  means  subtracting  hundreds 
of  thousands  of  productive  human  units  from  the  sum 
total  of  the  nation's  economic  productivity. 

The  other  path  is  the  way  of  ed|||i|tiQtt»  ^^^  training 
and  proper  development  of  the  booies  of  our  boys  while 
they  are  in  school,  so  that  no  long  period  of  military 
training  when  they  are  grown  will  be  necessary  to  make 
potential  soldiers  of  them.  That  is  the  path  that  can  be 
trod  without  upsetting  the  principles  of  a  republicNjj^ 

Physical  training  of  the  boys  in  the  public  scffools, 
complemented  at  maturity  by  a  short  period  of  universal^ 
nttlKcify  tfUlTllTlg,  has  ftiade  tne  citizens  of  the  Swis^ 
'Republic  the  best  soldiers,  man  for  man,  on  earthjA 
thi!l&  to  De  noted  is,  tnat  syiJtgM  has  not  made  Swirzer- 

land  anv  the  less  ^T\V^^?*^^i\'^^  '^^^  ^^^  maH^  a   militarist 

nation  of  her. 

Universal  military  training  is  bound  to  come  in  Amer- 
ica. Why  not  lay  the  foundation  for  it  and  make  it 
easier  by  educating  our  boys  to  look  forward  to  it  as  a 
joyful  service,  not  a  disagreable  duty? 

A  system  of  voluntary  military  training  might  have 
been  practicable  some  years  ago.  It  is  not  practicable 
now,  not  only  for  the  reason  that  no  sufficient  number 
would  volunteer,  but  because  of  the  utter  impossibility 
of  training  hundreds  of  thousands  of  raw  recruits  when 


the  enemy  is  almost  at  our  door.  The  average  American 
has  come  too  much  to  place  his  personal  comfort  and 
convenience,  the  gratification  of  his  appetites,  the  pursuit 
of  material  wealth  above  the  spirit  of  self-sacrifice  that 
must  animate  a  patriot. 

The  poison  has  sunk  deep.  The  antidote  is  universal 
military  training. 

Does  that  sound  harsh?  No  doubt  it  does  to  the 
sadly  increasing  effeminate  type  of  male  human  being 
that  has  grown  up  under  the  fostering  paternal  care  of 
the  pacifists.  But  would  not  a  devastated  land,  sacked 
cities,  helpless  men  slaughtered,  women  widowed,  babes 
orphaned  and  dearly-bought  wealth  confiscated  by  an 
alien  conqueror  be  harsher  still? 

That  can  never  happen,  say  you?  And  why  not? 
Isn't  it  possible  to  contemplate  the  day  when  the  Ameri- 
can people  will  thank  German  enterprise  for  the  lesson 
taught  us  when  the  first  submarine  merchantman  crossed 
the  Atlantic,  elu8Tftg^  enemy  men-of-war  and  slipped  into 
Baltimore  harbor?  Can  America  fail  to  heed  that  les- 
son? Is  there  a  man  honored  by  the  American  people 
with  authority  who  will  dare  to  be  so  base  as  to  make 
light  of  it? 

The  minute  the  "Deutschland"  poked  her  periscope 
above  the  surface  of  Baltimore  Bay  there  crumbled  one 
of  the  stock  arguments  opponents  of  a  larger  Army  and 
Navy  have  dinned  into  our  ears  from  time  immemorial. 
As  assets  of  national  defense  the  Atlantic  and  Pacific 
oceans  are  of  little  more  value  to  the  American  Republic 
as  though  they  did  not  exist. 

Destruction  of  our  fleet  on  either  coast  by  hostile 
submarines  sent  from  Europe  or  Asia  is  no  longer  a 
dream.  It  could  be  done,  and  we  most  reckon  on  the 
day  it  may  be  attempted.  That  once  accomplished,  fleets 
battering  down  our  coast  defenses  would  clear  the  way 
for  landing  an  invasion,  and  then  the  future  existence 
of  the  Republic  would  depend  on  the  Army,  and  the 
number  of  trained  men  she  could  call  to  the  colors. 

It  is  so  simple  that  extensive  argument  would  be 
fatuous. 

lO 


We  must  have  the  men — hundreds  of  thousands  of 
them — trained  to  the  use  of  arms,  and  the  officers  to 
command  them.  Now  is  the  time  to  arrest  the  progress 
of  the  cancer  with  which  pacificism  has  infected  our 
social  and  poHtical  institutions.  Those  who  would  never 
volunteer  to  undergo  military  training  must  be  compelled 
to  do  so.  The  State  must  exercise  its  inherent  right  to 
take  such  measures  as  it  deems  needful  for  the  protection 
of  its  own  life. 

Every  American  boy,  physically  fit,  should  spend  at 
least  six  weeks  each  in  his  19th,  20th  and  21st  year  in 
military  training  for  his  country's  and  his  own  health's 
sake. 

What  nobler,  prouder,  or  more  patriotic  spirit  could 
animate  the  hearts  of  our  sons  when  they  go  to  the  ballot 
box  for  the  first  time  to  exercise  their  right  to  choose  a 
government  deriving  its  just  powers  from  the  consent  of 
the  governed,  than  the  sublime  consciousness  they  can 
also  give  assurance  to  the  State  that  they  are  able  to  de- 
fend that  government  should  necessity  impose  that  duty 
upon  them. 

On  the  theory  that  such  univf^r<;n1  fr^mm^  \^  imp^j-^- 
\jMf,  .the  author  has  undertaken  to  show  by  the  achieve- 
ments of  the  Swis;^  TRepuhhr  what  should  be  done,  in  a 
general  way,  and  how. 


HISTORICAL  INTRODUCTION. 

(.   1 

I.     PERIOD  BEFORE  1848. 

Six  centuries  of  experience  with  violent  neighbors 
bent  on  conquest  taught  Switzerland  the  value  of  pre- 
paredness. Ages  of  growing  civilization  have  served 
chiefly  to  refine,  hardly  to  lessen,  the  spirit  of  ''Faust- 
recht" — the  principle  dominating  the  conduct  of  the 
powerful  princes  of  Central  Europe — "the  right  of  the 
mailed  fist." 

Switzerland  had  need  to  see  to  it  that  her  military 
establishment  kept  pace  with  that  of  any  power  liable 
to  be  hurled  against  her.  The  hob-nailed  shoes  that 
enabled  a  handful  of  ill-armed  mountaineers  rolling 
boulders  down  upon  their  foe  to  overcome  the  flower 
of  Hapsburg  knighthood  on  the  slippery  side  of 
Morgarten  in  131 5  would  not  avail  today  against 
mountain  artillery.  Hence,  the  wall  of  bayonets  in 
August,  1914,  warning  Germans,  Austrians,  French 
and  Italians  alike  that  "Helvetia"  was  not  to  be  an- 
other Belgium. 

Your  Swiss  is  no  militarist.  He  does  not  strut 
about  with  a  chip  on  his  shoulder,  looking  for  fight. 
He  loves  peace ;  but  he  loves  his  liberty,  his  rights  and 
his  country's  honor  better  than  peace,  and  will  fight  to 
maintain  them.^Txperience,  as  has  been  said,  having 
taught  the  Swiss  people  that  the  best  way  to  awe  a 
bully  nation  was  to  be  ready  to  repel  encroachment, 
Switzerland  is  prepared^^^ 

13 


An  idea  of  how  her  military  prowess  sprang  from 
her  needs  and  so  grew  up  amongst  republican  institu- 
tions as  not  to  be  in  any  way  repugnant  to  them  is 
necessary  to  complete  understanding  of  the  example 
V^merica's  little  sister  of  the  AlpsV)ffers  us  today. 

SWITZERLAND  DURING  THE  INTERREGNUM. 

When  Conrad  IV.  succeeded  in  1250  to  the  crown 
which  his  weak  predecessor,  Frederick  II.,  had  per- 
mitted to  sink  to  little  more  than  a  bauble,  he  tried 
manfully  to  wield  again  into  a  cohesive  and  powerful 
domain  the  historic  Holy  Roman  Empire.  Had  he 
lived  longer  perhaps  he  might  have  succeeded.  But 
four  years  were  all  too  short  for  such  a  task  and  there 
followed  until  1272  that  period  of  disorder  known  as 
the  Interregnum. 

It  was  during  the  Interregnum  that  the  seeds  of  the 
plant  that  was  later  to  blossom  into  Swiss  independence 
were  sown.  The  Cantons  of  Uri,  Schwyz  and  Unter- 
walden  were  among  those  petty  states  caught  in  the 
maelstrom  of  warring  emperors,  nobles  and  Popes,  who 
suflfered  from  the  near-anarchy  and  oppression  resultant 
from  lack  of  organized  government. 

Though  obscurity  surrounds  the  details  of  just  what 
did  take  place  among  these  three  Cantons  during  the 
Interregnum,  enough  has  been  gleaned  from  documents 
of  later  date  to  make  it  certain  that  they  formed  some 
sort  of  an  alliance  for  mutual  protection  and  resistance 
against  foes  of  any  of  them  and  to  fix  the  date  of  this 
agreement  as  about  1260,  six  years  after  the  death  of 
Conrad  IV. 

The  accession  of  Rudolph  to  the  throne  of  the  Em- 
pire in  1272  gained  the  three  allied  Cantons  a  powerful 

14 


friend.  Rudolph  was  the  first  member  of  the  House  of 
Hapsburg  to  wear  the  imperial  crown.  He  lost  no  time 
in  energetically  setting  to  work  to  conquer  the  rebellious 
German  princes  who  did  not  relish  the  thought  of  having 
a  real  sovereign  after  the  eighteen  years  of  license  they 
had  enjoyed. 

LOYAL  TO  THE  EMPIRE. 

No  more  loyal  vassals,  no  stronger  aid  against  the 
rebels  did  Rudolph  find  than  the  Swiss  people.  The 
Swiss  had  always  supported  the  Emperor  for  that  mat- 
ter, even  against  the  Pope,  so  in  the  case  of  Rudolph 
they  were  merely  following  a  course  they  had  always 
pursued.  But  that  did  not  lessen  Rudolph's  gratitude 
toward  them  and  during  his  reign  they  enjoyed  many 
favors. 

Though  the  Swiss  loved  Rudolph  they  did  not  alto- 
gether trust  the  other  princes  of  the  House  of  Hapsburg, 
and,  when  Rudolph  died  in  1292,  the  Cantons  of  Uri, 
Schwyz  and  Unterwalden  lost  no  time  in  forming  the 
League  that  renewed  their  earlier  covenant  and  that 
was  destined  to  be  the  keystone  of  the  arch  of  Swiss 
independence.  Before  tracing  the  general  conditions 
without,  that  caused  apprehension  among  the  three  Can- 
tons at  the  death  of  Rudolph,  it  may  be  well  to  explain 
their  internal  conditions  in  1291. 

In  the  ninth  century,  Louis  of  Bavaria,  grandson  of 
Charlemagne,  had  founded  the  convent  of  Zurich  of 
which  his  two  sisters  became  abbesses,  receiving  as  a 
grant  the  greater  portion  of  the  Canton  of  Uri. 

The  Abbess  ruled  her  vassals  through  a  secular 
warden.  This  wardenship  became  so  sought-after  a  post 
that  the  Houses  of  Zahringen  and  Hapsburg  in  turn 
had  succeeded  in  having  abrogated  the  provision  of  the 

15 


original  grant  making  the  abbey-lands  of  Zurich  directly 
dependent  on  the  Empire,  and  held  the  wardenship  in 
their  families.  In  1231,  however,  Frederick  II.  revoked 
this  Hapsburg  privilege,  and  placed  Uri  once  more  in 
direct  vassalage  to  the  Empire.  When  Rudolph  ascended 
the  imperial  throne,  although  himself  a  Hapsburg,  he 
confirmed  this  privilege  out  of  gratitude  for  the  aid  the 
Swiss  had  rendered  him  against  his  enemies. 

Schwyz,  also,  had  had  a  grant  from  Frederick  II.  in 
1240,  making  its  people  directly  dependent  upon  the 
Empire,  but  the  Hapsburgs  had  succeeded  in  nullifying 
it,  and  likewise  in  prevailing  upon  their  kinsman  Rudolph 
not  to  renew  it  as  he  had  that  of  Uri.  In  1291  much 
of  Schwyz  was  under  control  of  Hapsburg  nobles  who 
were  reaching  out  steadily,  grasping  greater  power  and 
wider  domains.  In  addition  there  was  in  Schwyz  a 
community  of  free  peasants,  but  these,  too,  were  under 
the  government  of  the  Emperor's  delegates  who  in  this 
case  were  scions  of  the  same  House  of  Hapsburg. 

THE  HAPSBURG  MENACE. 

Unterwalden  was  still  more  completely  under  the 
dominion  of  the  Hapsburgs,  being  part  of  their  personal 
holdings.  The  land  itself  of  Unterwalden  was  all  owned 
either  by  Hapsburg  nobles  or  by  the  Abbey  of  Murbach, 
and  the  Hapsburg  held  the  Murbach  wardenship.  Hence, 
Unterwalden  had  neither  the  free  tenancy  that  obtained 
in  part  of  Schwyz  nor  the  privilege  of  direct  dependence 
on  the  Empire  that  characterized  Uri. 

Thus  did  the  Hapsburg  menace  face  the  Swiss  when 
their  friend  and  protector  Rudolph  died,  leaving  them 
at  the  mercy  of  nobles  and  abbots  who  were  determined, 
no   matter   how    unjust   the   means    or    oppressive   the 

16 


measures,  to  extend  their  own  power  and  aggrandize- 
ment. Before  Rudolph's  reign,  even  during  the  Inter- 
regnum, the  shadow  of  imperial  power  had  been  sufficient 
to  give  the  Swiss  some  need  of  protection  against  en- 
croachment of  the  Hapsburgs.  Rudolph  combined  the 
power  of  the  Hapsburgs  and  the  Empire  in  one  head, 
but  the  danger  was  averted  because  Rudolph  loved 
and  was  loved  by  the  Swiss.  But  at  his  death  the  Swiss, 
fearing  the  imperial  crown  would  fall  to  some  Hapsburg 
willing  to  assist  his  numerous  noble  kinsmen  in  their 
designs  of  conquest,  took  the  position  that  "forewarned 
is  forearmed'*  and  the  three  Cantons  promptly  renewed 
their  alliance  of  a  generation  before. 

Thus  was  born  the  League  of  1291 — the  Magna 
Charta  of  Switzerland. 

LEAGUE  OF  THE  THREE  CANTONS. 

The  original  document  is  still  preserved  in  the  ar- 
chives of  the  town  of  Schwyz.  Its  text,  attended  by  the 
seals  of  the  men  of  all  three  Cantons,  reads  as  follows: 

"Be  it  known  to  everyone,  that  the  men  of  the 
Dale  of  Uri,  the  Community  of  Schwyz,  as  also 
the  men  of  the  mountains  of  Unterwald,  in  con- 
sideration of  the  evil  times,  have  full  confidently 
bound  themselves,  and  sworn  to  help  each  other 
with  all  their  power  and  might,  property  and 
people,  against  all  who  shall  do  violence  to  them. 
That  is  our  ancient  Bond. 

"Whoever  serves  a  lord,  let  him  obey  accord- 
ing to  the  conditions  of  his  service. 

"We  are  agreed  to  receive  into  these  dales  no 
Judge,  who  is  not  a  countryman  and  indweller, 
or  who  hath  bought  his  place. 

17 


>y*^ 


l8 


U.  S.  Senator  George  E.  Chamberlain 
Father  of  Universal  Training  in  Congress. 


iBS. 


"Every  controversy  amongst  the  sworn  con- 
federates shall  be  determined  by  some  of  the 
gest  of  their  number,  and  if  anyone  shall  chal- 
lenge their  judgment,  then  shall  he  be  constrained 
to  obey  it  by  the  rest. 

"Whoever  intentionally  or  deceitfully  kills  an- 
other shall  be  executed,  and  whoever  shelters  him 
shall  be  banished. 

"Whoever  burns  the  property  of  another  shall 
no  longer  be  regarded  as  a  countryman,  and  who- 
ever shelters  him  shall  make  good  the  damage 
done. 

"No  one  shall  destrain  a  debtor  without  a 
Judge,  nor  anyone  who  is  not  his  debtor  or  the 
surety  for  such  debtor. 

"Everyone  in  these  dales  shall  submit  to  the 
Judge  or  we,  the  sworn  confederates,  all  will  take 
satisfaction  for  all  the  injury  occasioned  by  his 
contumacy.  And  if  in  any  internal  division  the 
one  party  will  not  accept  justice,  all  the  rest  shall 
help  the  other  party. 

"These  decrees  shall,  God  willing,  endure  eter- 
nally for  our  general  advantage." 

The  spirit  that  impelled  the  three  Cantons  to  renew 
and  enlarge  their  "ancient  bond'^  in  1291  is  fully  re- 
vealed in  this  document.  The  mutual  pledge  of  aid 
against  any  aggressor,  "in  consideration  of  the  evil 
times,''  reflects  all  too  plainly  the  determination  of  the 
Swiss  to  resist  to  the  end  anticipated  encroachments  of 
the  Hapsburgs.  But  at  the  same  time  they  made  it  plain 
they  did  not  seek  to  overthrow  lawfully  established  in- 
stitutions, as  witness  the  dictum  that  any  man  bound  in 

19 


vassalage  to  a  feudal  lord  should  fulfill  the  terms  of 
his  service.  General  law  and  order  were  guarded  in  the 
penalties  fixed  for  murder,  arson  and  robbery,  while  per- 
sonal rights  were  held  inviolable  in  the  provision  for- 
bidding constraint  "without  a  judge." 

In  other  words  the  Swiss  served  notice  on  the  Haps- 
burgs  and  any  other  who  might  attempt  to  oppress  them : 

"This  far  shalt  thou  go,  and  no  farther !  The  rights 
and  grants  the  Empire  has  lawfully  vested  in  you  shall 
not  be  disturbed.  But  you  shall  not  encroach  beyond 
those  rights,  nor  enslave  a  free  people!" 

The  League  of  1291  is  often  referred  to  as  the  Swiss 
"Declaration  of  Independence."  While  this  is  not  alto- 
gether an  inappropriate  title  for  the  agreement  of  the 
Cantons  to  defend  their  liberties  against  aggressors,  the 
impression  should  not  prevail  that  Switzerland  under- 
took to  become  independent  of  all  authority  but  its  own 
in  1 291.  The  Cantons  still  acknowledge  the  sovereignty 
of  the  Holy  Roman  Empire  and  purposed  continuing  to 
do  so  unless,  the  imperial  crown  remaining  with  the 
Hapsburg,  those  ambitious  princes  should  seek  to  deprive 
the  Swiss  of  their  charters  and  grants. 

Their  spirit  is  expressed  by  Schiller  in  "Wilhelm 
Tell,"  when  the  delegates  from  the  Cantons,  assembling 
on  the  "Riitli,"  pledge  to  one  another : 

We  will  be 
One  single  fold  of  brothers,  in  no  need 
Will  sunder,  nor  no  danger. 

We  will  be 
Free,  as  our  fathers  were,  and  rather  death 
Than  life  in  shameful  bondage! 

We  will  set 
In  God  Most  High  our  trust.    We  will  not  fear 
The  might  of  man  to  hurt  us! 

20 


But  the  Swiss  were  not  the  only  ones  who  had  felt 
alarm  at  the  rapid  strides  with  which  the  Hapsburgs 
were  enforcing  their  claims  to  supreme  power.  The 
Electors,  in  whom  abided  the  right  of  selecting  Rudolph's 
successor,  disregarded  Rudolph's  heir,  Albrecht,  and 
seated  Adolph  of  Nassau  on  the  throne.  Albrecht,  fail- 
ing of  election,  had  recourse  to  arms.  The  Swiss,  con- 
sistent with  their  principles  of  always  siding  with  the 
lawful  Emperor,  and  likewise,  no  doubt,  strengthened  in 
it  by  the  thought  that  the  Hapsburg  menace  was  per- 
sonified in  Albrecht,  fought  in  the  armies  of  Adolph. 
He,  like  Rudolph  had  done,  rewarded  them  by  confirm- 
ing their  charters. 

THE  TYRANNY  OF  ALBRECHT. 

But  in  1298  Albrecht  slew  Adolph  in  single  combat 
at  Goellheim  and  seized  the  throne  of  the  Empire.  The 
Swiss  fear  of  what  would  happen  if  the  Hapsburgs  re- 
tained the  suzerainty  was  justified  by  events.  Albrecht 
made  haste  to  aggrandize  the  House  of  Hapsburg  and 
punish  the  Swiss  for  their  espousal  of  Adolph's  cause 
at  one  stroke.  He  transferred  the  Cantons  from  the 
condition  of  allegiance  to  the  Empire  to  direct  depend- 
ence on  his  own  branch  of  the  Hapsburg  family.  By 
this  act  Albrecht  aimed  to  make  certain  that  the  Swiss 
would  be  subject  to  the  Hapsburg  regardless  of  who  suc- 
ceeded him  as  Emperor. 

For  ten  years  Albrecht  and  his  Austrian  "Land- 
vogte,"  or  baillies,  sent  by  him  to  rule  the  Swiss,  op- 
pressed the  people  of  the  Cantons.  There  was  much 
revolt  and  disorder,  although  a  mist  of  legend  makes  it 
difficult  to  ascertain  exactly  just  what  events  did  take 
place.     It  is  quite  likely  the  Swiss  met  with  some  suc- 

21 


cess  in  resisting  Albrecht's  representatives.  The  slaying 
of  Wolfenschiessen,  an  Austrian  governor,  by  Baum- 
garten  in  defense  of  his  wife's  honor  seems  to  be  a 
fairly  well-authenticated  indication  of  the  sort  of  tyranny 
the  Swiss  were  subjected  to  by  their  Hapsburg  masters 
during  the  decade  Emperor  Albrecht  reigned. 

But  Albrecht's  proclivity  to  tyrannizing  over  those 
weaker  than  himself  proved  to  be  his  own  undoing.  In 
1308  he  was  killed  by  his  ward  and  nephew,  Archduke 
John,  when  the  Emperor  refused  to  turn  over  the  Arch- 
duke's inheritance  to  him. 

THE  STRUGGLE  BEGINS. 

The  answer  of  the  Swiss  representative  to  the  appeal 
of  Albrecht's  widow  to  help  her  hunt  down  the  slayer 
of  her  husband  is  characteristic  to  their  sturdy  self-reli- 
ance and  disinclination  to  curry  favor  with  one  high  in 
power.  They  said,  in  effect,  that  since  John  and  his  con- 
federates were  miscreants  they  would  not  shelter  them 
or  actually  help  them  escape,  but  that  inasmuch  as  Al- 
brecht had  wronged  and  oppressed  them  they  saw  no 
reason  why  they  should  join  in  the  hunt  for  the  man 
who  had  reheved  them  of  his  tyranny. 

The  Electors  once  more  passed  by  the  claims  of  the 
House  of  Hapsburg  to  the  imperial  throne  and  chose 
Henry  of  Luxemburg  as  Emperor.  Henry  confirmed 
the  charters  of  the  Swiss,  but  his  regime  was  terminated 
by  death  in  13 13.  From  then  dated  the  beginning  of 
the  three  Swiss  Cantons  as  a  nation  in  arms,  battling 
to  preserve  their  liberties  against  the  Austrians. 

For  this  time  Hapsburg,  though  again  disappointed  in 
the  Elector's  choice,  took  it  upon  itself  to  chasten  the 
Swiss. 

22 


Frederick  of  Hapsburg  and  Ludwig  of  Bavaria  were 
the  claimants  of  the  imperial  throne  at  the  death  of 
Henry.  After  a  brief  interregnum  the  Electors  chose 
Ludwig.  In  the  meantime,  however,  adherents  of  the 
rival  claimants  had  had  frequent  recourse  to  violence 
and  the  inhabitants  of  Schwyz,  who,  with  those  of  the 
other  Cantons  supported  Ludwig,  had  sacked  the  Monas- 
tery of  Einsiedeln,  of  which  Frederick  of  Hapsburg  was 
warden,  and  had  carried  off  the  monks  as  captives.  For 
this  the  men  of  Schwyz  incurred  the  ban  of  the  Empire 
and  excommunication  from  the  Church,  but  when  Lud- 
wig acceded  to  the  throne  he  himself  removed  the  ban 
and  brought  enough  influence  to  bear  to  have  the  excom- 
munication lifted. 

THE  BATTLE  OF  MORGARTEN. 

But  apparently  Ludwig  was  not  powerful  enough  to 
protect  his  faithful  against  the  Austrians  who  now  set 
out  to  punish  the  impudent  mountaineers.  Duke  Leopold 
of  Austria,  younger  brother  of  the  disappointed  Fred- 
erick, led  an  army  of  between  15,000  and  20,000  infantry 
and  heavy  cavalry  to  Switzerland,  vowing  he  would  an- 
nihilate the  peasants.  A  small  body  of  Swiss,  poorly 
armed,  but  heroic  in  heart,  ambushed  the  splendid  Haps- 
burg army  as  it  filed  into  the  Pass  of  Morgarten.  Hurl- 
ing great  boulders  and  trunks  of  trees  down  upon  the 
invaders  who  could  not  ascend  the  slippery  sides  of  the 
mountain,  the  Swiss  fell  upon  them  when  they  were  in 
panic  and  butchered  them.  Leopold  himself  was  hard 
put  to  it  to  escape  with  but  a  remnant  of  the  powerful 
force  he  had  led  into  with  such  intentions. 

Emperor  Ludwig  must  have  gloated  at  this  victory 
of  the  Swiss  over  their  common  enemy  for  he  unhesi- 

23 


tatingly  gave  his  approval  to  a  renewal  of  the  League 
of  1 29 1.  The  authority  of  the  Empire  was  acknowledged 
in  the  new  document,  as  were  the  rights  of  the  feudal 
lords,  but  it  was  made  plain  again  that  no  encroachment 
beyond  the  limit  of  these  rights  would  be  countenanced. 
The  next  demonstration  of  the  prowess  of  the  Swiss 
mountaineers  was  given  in  1339  when  at  the  battle  of 
Laupen  they  helped  thrash  the  jealous  nobles  who  had 
moved  to  attack  the  free  imperial  city  of  Bern. 

THE  LEAGUE  EXPANDS. 

By  1353  the  League  of  the  Cantons  had  grown  from 
the  original  three — Uri,  Schwyz,  and  Unterwalden — to 
eight.  Lucerne  entered  the  League  in  1332,  Zurich  in 
1351,  Glarus  and  Zug  in  1352  and  Bern  in  1353. 

Lucerne  had  long  been  the  market  place  of  the  people 
of  the  three  Forest  Cantons,  consequently  she  was  bound 
to  them  by  ties  that  made  her  accession  to  the  League 
easy.  Under  the  rule  of  the  Murbach  Abbey,  Lucerne 
had  enjoyed  a  large  degree  of  self-govrnment,  but,  in 
1 291,  the  Abbey  found  itself  in  financial  difficulties  and 
sold  the  town  of  Lucerne  to  the  Hapsburgs.  For  more 
than  forty  years  the  people  of  Lucerne  chafed  under  the 
Austrian  yoke,  and  in  1332  saw  their  opportunity  to 
throw  it  off  in  joining  Uri,  Schwyz  and  Unterwalden. 

Zurich  had  enjoyed  unexampled  power  and  prosperity 
under  Burgomaster  Brun,  who  had  made  himself  dic- 
tator by  placing  himself  at  the  head  of  the  common 
citizens  and  crushing  the  nobles.  Brun,  however,  was 
not  antagonistic  toward  Austria,  in  fact  he  rather  favored 
the  Hapsburgs.  So,  in  the  alliance  Zurich  entered  into 
with  the  other  Cantons  in  1351,  it  was  provided  that 
she  might  make  treaties  with  other  states  outside  the 

24 


League.  Zurich  began  to  extend  the  territory  of  the 
Federation  by  conquest.  In  November,  her  forces  in- 
vaded Glarus  and  conquered  it.  It  has  been  always  sus- 
pected that  the  people  of  Glarus  permitted  themselves  to 
be  conquered,  for  they  also  had  previously  fallen  under 
the  Hapsburg  rule. 

In  any  event  the  following  spring  they  themselves 
routed  an  Austrian  force  that  was  sent  to  redeem  the 
territory,  and  in  June,  1352,  Glarus  was  admitted  into 
the  League. 

Zug  was  surrounded  by  territory  of  the  Federation 
after  the  admission  of  Glarus,  and  the  Cantons  con- 
sidered it  necessary  that  she  become  one  of  them.  They 
sent  a  Federal  force  to  besiege  the  town  of  Zug  which 
surrendered  June  27,  1352.  In  spite  of  her  resistance, 
Zug  was  taken  in  as  a  full-fledged  member  of  the  League. 

Bern  had  held  the  Cantons  in  high  regard  ever  since 
1339  when,  at  the  Battle  of  Laupen,  the  city  had  been 
rescued  from  a  besieging  force  of  some  powerful  nobles 
by  the  arrival  of  six  thousand  soldiers  from  the  League. 
Bern  had  grown  to  great  military  importance  during  her 
years  of  warfare  with  the  surrounding  feudal  lords,  but 
she  herself  had  a  thoroughly  aristocratic  form  of  gov- 
ernment. After  the  Battle  of  Laupen,  Austria,  anxious 
to  obtain  so  potent  an  ally,  induced  Bern  to  make  a 
treaty  with  her.  This  alliance  lasted  ten  years.  In  1353, 
following  the  Peace  of  Brandenburg,  Bern  joined  the 
League  of  the  Cantons,  raising  its  number  to  eight. 

But  it  must  not  be  supposed  that  haughty  Hapsburg 
had  looked  on  unconcerned  while  the  Swiss  Confederacy 
was  being  augmented  and  strengthened  by  these  new  ac- 
cessions. Full  well  did  Austria  realize  that  the  motive 
underlying  this  steadily  growing  union  of  the  Cantons 

25 


was  that  of  lifting  a  barrier  against  her  own  expansion. 
In  1332  Austria  had  protested  against  Lucerne  joining 
the  Confederacy  and  when,  nineteen  years  later,  Zurich 
followed  suit,  she  had  recourse  to  action. 

AUSTRIA  RENEWS  WAR  ON  THE  LEAGUE. 

In  1354  the  Hapsburg  princes  brought  to  bear  on 
the  Empire  sufficient  influence  to  obtain  its  assistance, 
and  a  combined  force  of  Austrian  and  imperial  troops 
besieged  Zurich.  But  a  change  of  policy  soon  caused 
the  withdrawal  of  the  Empire's  forces  and  the  siege  per- 
force was  abandoned.  Another  unsuccessful  attempt  of 
the  Austrians  in  1368  to  crush  the  sturdy  Swiss  was  fol- 
lowed by  eighteen  years  of  comparative  peace  between 
them. 

Duke  Leopold  II.,  grandson  of  the  ill-fated  Emperor 
Albrecht,  took  up  in  1386  the  ancient  quarrel  of  his 
house.  He  led  six  thousand  of  his  finest  soldiers  against 
Lucerne,  and  joined  battle  at  Sempach  with  a  poorly 
equipped  force  of  two  thousand  from  the  Cantons.  The 
Austrian  phalanx  presented  a  solid  front,  and  the  Swiss 
had  nothing  more  formidable  than  rude  boards  to  ward 
off  the  spears  of  the  Hapsburg  knights.  At  this  critical 
juncture  Arnold  Struthan  von  Winkelried,  whose  feat 
has  reliable  historical  foundation,  dashed  to  the  fore- 
front of  his  compatriots : 

"Dear  and  faithful  comrades,  I  will  open  you  a  pas- 
sage. Protect  my  wife  and  children!''  Winkelried 
shouted  and  raced  headlong  toward  the  Austrian  lines. 
With  arms  outstretched  he  gathered  into  his  own  breast 
as  many  of  the  lances  as  he  could  encompass,  broke  the 
phalanx  and  made  a  lane  through  which  his  fellows,  in- 
spired to  the  acme  of  valor  and  prowess  by  his  unprece- 

26 


dented  sacrifice,  charged  over  his  mangled  corpse  to  vic- 
tory. The  Austrians  were  routed,  six  hundred  and  fifty- 
six  of  their  chiefest  nobles  being  dead  on  the  field  of 
Sempach. 

Two  years  later  the  last  effort  on  the  part  of  Austria 
to  subdue  her  doughty  little  foe  was  made.  At  Nafels 
the  Swiss,  imitating  the  strategy  that  had  won  for  their 
forbears  at  Morgarten  in  13 15,  administered  another 
crushing  defeat  to  the  Austrians.  From  1338  dates  the 
actual  and  admitted  independence  of  Switzerland  as  a 
nation.  The  Swiss  celebrated  the  500th  anniversary  of 
their  freedom  by  flocking  to  Nafels  from  all  corners  of 
the  Republic  on  April  5,  1888,  to  take  part  in  the  cere- 
monies the  people  of  Glarus  hold  there  each  year. 

In  1389  Austria  and  the  Cantons  arranged  a  seven 
years'  peace.  This  agreement  was  prolonged  subse- 
quently for  seventy  years.  Finally,  Austria  gave  up  all 
claims  to  dominion  over  Uri,  Schwyz,  Unterwalden, 
Lucerne,  Zurich,  Glarus,  Zug  and  Bern. 

GRADUAL  GROWTH  OF  THE  FEDERATION. 

By  1513,  125  years  after  the  Battle  of  Nafels,  the 
number  of  Cantons  in  the  League  had  increased  from 
eight  to  thirteen.  Freiburg  and  Solothurn  were  ad- 
mitted in  1 481 ;  Basel  and  Schaffhausen  in  1501,  and 
Appenzell  in  1513. 

This  extension  of  the  League's  territory  during  the 
15th  century  was,  however,  gradual.  Some  of  the  States 
eventually  admitted  to  full  membership  in  the  Federation 
had,  prior  to  their  admission,  entered  into  alliances  of 
various  sorts  with  the  Cantons.  Some  of  them  were  in- 
ferior allies  such  as  Appenzell  became  in  141 1;  others 
put  themselves  under  the  protection  of  the  League ;  while 

27 


still  another  class  became,  through  conquest,  subject 
lands.  In  1436  Zurich  and  Schwyz  engaged  in  civil  war 
over  territory  which  each  claimed  to  have  inherited  from 
Emperor  Frederick  VII.  who  died  in  that  year.  This 
disputed  land  composed  what  is  now  the  Canton  of 
St.  Gall,  a  considerable  part  of  Graubtinden,  Voralberg 
and  other  territory.  The  other  Cantons  aided  Schwyz 
and  their  combined  force  besieged  the  city  of  Zurich. 
Austria  saw  her  opportunity  and  took  up  arms  against 
the  Federation. 

Austria  and  Zurich  combined  were  no  match  for  the 
League,  so  France  was  prevailed  upon  to  join  them. 
The  Dauphin  (later  Louis  XL)  led  an  army  of  thirty 
thousand  against  Basel. 

The  Swiss  advanced  to  meet  them.  One  division  of 
the  Swiss  were  surrounded  on  an  island  in  the  River 
Birs  and  annihilated. 

SWISS  MILITARY  FAME  SPREADS. 

What  was  left  of  the  Swiss  force,  not  over  six  hun- 
dred men,  confronted  the  French  army  thirty  times  their 
number,  at  the  infirmary  of  St.  Jacques.  Twice  in  the 
course  of  six  hours  they  repulsed  furious  French  attacks 
and  twice  made  heroic  sorties  themselves.  But,  finally, 
the  French  stormed  the  infirmary  walls,  rushed  in  and 
overwhelmed  the  Swiss  in  a  hand-to-hand  conflict.  The 
Swiss  would  not  surrender,  preferring  to  die  instead. 
"  IM*l^"r^hch  losi  iour  thousand  meillir  Ll'ie  Buille'tyf 
St.  Jacques,  and  the  heroism  of  the  Swiss  so  impressed 
Louis  that  he  made  an  honorable  peace  with  them.  This 
battle  went  a  long  way  toward  establishing  the  military 
reputation  of  the  Swiss. 

28 


The  civil  war  between  Zurich  and  the  other  Cantons 
did  not  actually  end  until  six  years  later,  when,  at  the 
Peace  of  1450,  Zurich  abandoned  her  alliance  with  Aus- 
'tria.  The  Cantons  became  reconciled,  and  the  League  a 
more  cohesive  union  than  ever. 

The  Burgundian  Wars  (1474-1477)  served  still 
further  to  enhance  Switzerland's  military  standing. 
The  story  of  how  Louis  of  France,  still  mindful  of 
St.  Jacques,  bent  all  his  efforts  toward  gaining  the  aid 
of  the  Swiss  in  his  design  to  destroy  the  power  of 
Charles  the  Bold  of  Burgundy,  and  how  he  succeeded 
in  attracting  them  to  his  cause,  is  too  long  a  one  to  be 
related  here. 

A  force  from  Bern,  Freiburg  and  Solothurn  invaded 
Vaud  in  1475.  This  territory  was  subject  to  Savoy,  and 
Savoy  was  an  ally  of  Burgundy.  The  Swiss  took  con- 
siderable territory  from  Savoy,  the  most  important  being 
Lower  Valais.  Charles  the  Bold  proceded  to  retaliate 
by  invading  Switzerland  with  an  army  of  fifty  thousand, 
accompanied  by  heavy  artillery.  Following  some  pre- 
liminary skirmishes  he  was  met  by  a  well-equipped  force 
of  eighteen  thousand  Swiss  infantry  and  cavalry  at 
Grandson  early  in  March,  1476.  Mistaking  a  maneuver 
of  Charles  for  an  order  to  retreat,  at  the  very  moment 
the  main  body  of  the  Swiss  came  up  to  support  their 
advance  force,  the  Burgundians  were  thrown  into  a  panic 
and,  to  quote  a  chronicler  of  the  time,  "took  to  their 
heels,  and  disappeared  from  sight,  as  if  a  whirlwind  had 
swept  them  from  the  earth.'' 

SWISS  HALT  CAREER  OF  CHARLES  THE  BOLD. 

In  less  than  two  weeks  Charles  set  to  work  to  reas- 
semble his  defeated  army.    The  Bernese  were  on  guard 

29 


and  fortified  their  strong  outpost,  Morat.  In  June 
Charles  laid  siege  to  Morat  with  twenty-five  thousand 
men.  The  fortress  was  defended  by  a  garrison  of  fif- 
teen hundred  Swiss  under  command  of  Adrian  von 
Bubenberg.  For  two  weeks  they  withstood  alone  the 
onslaughts  of  the  Burgundians. 

On  June  22nd  the  main  army  of  the  League,  com- 
prising about  ten  thousand  troops  under  Hans  Wald- 
mann  of  Zurich,  arrived  before  Morat  to  relieve  their 
beleaguered  compatriots. 

The  story  of  the  Battle  of  Morat  is  in  itself  a  lesson 
in  tactics.  Their  guns  on  their  shoulders,  Waldniann's 
soldiers  dauntlessly  charged  the  Burgundian  artillery. 
Heedless  of  the  heavy  fire  thinning  their  ranks,  the 
Swiss  advanced  right  up  to  their  foe,  drove  them  from 
their  cannon,  and  then  formed  themselves  into  a  phalanx 
and  charged  the  Burgundian  centre. 

Charles  himself  was  there  surrounded  by  an  auxiliary 
force  of  crack  English  archers.  What  ensued  was 
slaughter.  Charles  personally  engaged  in  furious  com- 
bat and,  before  the  fight  was  over,  saw  fifteen  hundred 
of  his  chief  nobles  lying  dead  around  him. 

In  this  critical  juncture  Bubenberg  salHed  forth  with 
his  garrison  troops  and  attacked  the  Burgundian  left 
wing.  Simultaneously  the  force  of  Lucerne  soldiers  as- 
saulted the  Burgundian  centre  from  the  rear. 

Charles'  army,  terror-stricken,  fled  in  a  wild  rout. 
For  miles  the  Swiss  pursued  them,  bloody  hand-to-hand 
conflicts  resulting  whenever  they  overtook  their  foe. 
Twelve  thousand  Burgundians  were  killed  that  day,  many 
fleeing  into  the  lake  to  drown  rather  than  face  a  more 
terrible  death  at  the  hands  of  the  victorious  Swiss. 
Three  thousand  of  the  League's  soldiers  fell. 

30 


Bitterly  disappointed  and  filled  with  despair,  Charles 
took  refuge  in  Morges  with  a  few  followers.  Bearing 
the  rich  spoils  they  had  taken  from  the  Burgundian  camp, 
the  Swiss  army  returned  home,  greeted  with  wild  ac- 
claim by  the  people  they  had  saved  from  the  yoke  of 
Charles.  To  this  day  the  Battle^  ofMorat  ranks  witb^ 
those  of  JVfnrrnrtPn  and  Frmpnrh  in  the  annals  of  Swiss 
military  achievement. 

Duke  Rene  of  Lorraine  who  had  fought  in  the  Swiss 
army  against  the  Burgundians  now  set  about  redeeming 
his  own  province  from  Charles'  grasp.  The  Burgundian 
ruler,  although  he  had  had  his  fill  of  fighting  the  Swiss, 
did  not  purpose  to  lose  Lorraine.  Late  in  1476  he  ad- 
vanced into  that  province  with  a  new  army  and  took 
the  city  of  Nancy. 

Duke  Rene  begged  the  League  to  come  to  his  assist- 
ance, but  the  canny  Swiss  could  not  see  any  advantage  in 
such  an  undertaking.  However,  Swiss  citizens  were  per- 
mitted to  enlist  in  Rene's  army  and  eight  thousand  of 
them,  under  Hans  Waldmann,  recaptured  Nancy  in 
January  1477. 

Charles  the  Bold  was  himself  killed  at  Nancy.  So 
the  Swiss,  after  having  started  this  powerful  monarch 
on  the  road  to  destruction,  were  the  principal  actors  in 
the  final  chapter  of  his  tragic  history. 

The  net  result  of  the  Burgundian  campaign  was  not 
by  any  means  commensurate  with  the  part  the  Cantons 
had  played  in  breaking  up  Charles'  empire.  Vaud  was 
returned  to  Savoy  upon  payment  of  a  ransom,  yet  the 
way  was  opened  for  the  annexation  of  Vaud  to  Switzer- 
land later  on.  Lower  Valais  and  all  Freiburg  were  free 
from  the  domination  of  Savoy. 

The  most  thrilling  instance  of  Swiss  military  prowess, 

31 


and  one  that  spread  its  fame  throughout  Italy,  was  the 
Battle  of  Giornico  in  1478  where  a  force  of  only  six 
hundred  Swiss  defeated  a  Milanese  army  of  fifteen  thou- 
sand. This  battle  was  the  culmination  of  three-quarters 
of  a  century  of  warfare  between  the  Milanese  and  the 
Forest  Cantons.  It  laid  the  foundation  for  the  subse- 
quent acquisition  of  Ticino,  an  Italian-speaking  district, 
by  the  League  early  in  the  sixteenth  century.  Ticino  was 
not  admitted  as  a  Canton  until  1803. 

BEGINNING  OF  MERCENARY  SERVICE. 

Though  the  Battle  of  Nancy  was  the  fitting  climax 
of  a  glorious  record  of  Swiss  military  achievement,  it  at 
the  same  time  inaugurated  a  far  less  creditable  period. 
For  at  Nancy  Swiss  soldiers  for  the  first  time  engaged 
in  mercenary  foreign  service.  They  hired  themselves 
for  services  in  a  war  in  which  their  own  country  had 
refused  to  participate.  For  the  next  three  centuries  the 
Swiss  mercenaries  were  eagerly  sought  after  by  the  most 
powerful  monarchs  in  Europe,  and  though  it  brought 
added  fame  to  the  Swiss  as  fighting  men  it  did  not  tend 
to  uplift  the  national  character  of  the  League. 

Nevertheless,  Switzerland's  part  in  crushing  Bur- 
gundy had  raised  the  Confederation  high  in  the  esteem 
of  the  whole  world.  France,  Italy,  the  Austrians,  and 
even  England  (jealous  of  the  favor  in  which  the  Swiss 
held  France)  made  overtures  for  the  League's  friend- 
ship. 

CIVIL  STRIFE  BREAKS  OUT. 

Flushed  with  their  victory  over  the  Burgundians  and 
somewhat  overproud,  perhaps,  of  the  praise  bestowed 
on  them  by  Europe,  Swiss  Cantons  began  to  wrangle 
among  themselves.     Disputes  arose  over  the  division  of 

32 


the  spoils  taken  in  the  Burgundian  War.  Zurich,  Bern 
and  Lucerne  had  forged  far  ahead  of  the  five  country 
Cantons  in  wealth,  and  power  and  culture,  and  insisted 
they  should  receive  the  lion's  share  of  the  booty.  These 
three  cities  had  thirty-five  thousand  soldiers  in  the 
League's  army  as  against  about  fifteen  thousand  supplied 
by  the  other  Cantons,  and  it  was  suggested  that  the 
spoils  be  divided  on  this  basis. 

The  three  Cantons  of  Uri,  Schwyz  and  Unterwalden, 
anxious  to  maintain  their  prestige  as  the  founders  of  the 
League,  took  the  initiative  in  resisting  the  cities. 

Meanwhile,  Freiburg  and  Solothurn  had  applied  for 
admission  to  the  League  as  Cantons,  and  this  provoked 
a  new  occasion  for  dispute.  Finally  a  Federal  Diet  was 
called  to  convene  at  Stanz  in  Unterwalden  on  December 
i8,  1481.  Matters  had  come  almost  to  a  breaking  point, 
and  it  was  hoped  that  at  Stanz  some  way  would  be  found 
to  settle  all  the  differences. 

But,  when  the  representatives  of  the  Cantons  met, 
dissension  broke  out  worse  than  ever.  When  it  seamed 
almost  that  civil  war  was  imminent,  the  Pastor  of  Stanz 
betook  himself  to  the  woods  where  the  famous  hermit 
Niklaus  von  der  Flue  lived  in  a  cave  and  was  in  the 
habit  of  advising  emissaries  sent  to  him  by  rulers  from 
all  parts  of  Europe  when  they  were  confronted  by  vex- 
ing problems. 

The  hermit  sent  back  such  sound  counsel  to  Stanz 
that  the  representatives  of  the  Cantons  composed  all  their 
differences  and  civil  strife  was  averted. 

The  most  important  decision  arrived  at  in  their  agree- 
ment was  to  admit  Freiburg  and  Solothurn  as  full-fledged 
Cantons,  thus  raising  the  number  of  States  in  the  League 
to  ten. 

33 


REFORMS   AND   ACHIEVEMENTS    OF   WALDMANN. 

In  passing,  some  attention  deserves  to  be  devoted  to 
Hans  Waldmann,  who,  as  Burgomaster  of  Zurich,  left 
an  indelible  impression  on  the  development  of  the  Swiss 
nation.  Born  in  Zug,  Waldmann  came  to  Zurich  as  a 
youth  of  sixteen,  bought  citizenship  there  and  rapidly 
rose  to  prominence,  although  he  had  begun  his  career 
as  a  tanner.  He  was  knighted  while  with  the  Swiss 
army  at  Grandson  and,  it  will  be  remembered,  led  the 
force  of  ten  thousand  Zurich  soldiers  who  played  such 
havoc  with  the  Burgundians  at  Morat.  Waldmann  had 
urgently  advocated  the  Swiss  League  going  to  the  aid  of 
Rene  in  Lorraine  and,  when  the  Diet  turned  down  the 
proposal,  put  himself  at  the  head  of  the  eight  thousand 
mercenaries  who  took  Nancy. 

Upon  his  return  after  the  war  he  was  made  Burgo- 
master and  devoted  himself  to  increasing  the  power  of 
the  craftsmen's  guilds  and  lessening  that  of  the  nobles. 
Going  further  than  his  predecessor  Brun,  who  had  equal- 
ized the  representation  of  the  guilds  and  nobles  in  the 
council,  Waldmann  established  the  guilds  in  the  majority. 
He  raised  Zurich  to  the  zenith  of  her  power  and  often 
styled  himself  King  of  the  Swiss.  Emperor  and  Pope 
realized  his  power  and  on  more  than  one  occasion  bowed 
to  his  dictates. 

Following  an  uprising  of  the  peasants  of  the  country 
districts  around  the  city  of  Zurich,  Waldmann  was  exe- 
cuted in  1489.  His  most  lasting  accomplishments  had 
been  to  restore  the  liberties  of  the  people  of  Zurich  and 
to  establish  its  authority  over  the  surrounding  territory. 

SWISS  FREED  FROM  CONTROL  OF  EMPIRE. 
The  Swabian  War,  occurring  at  the  close  of  the  fif- 
teenth century,  resulted  in  Switzerland  finally  breaking 

34 


PiSI^B!' 


her  bonds  of  allegiance  to  the  empire.     Tl:^e  Emperor 
Maximilian,  who  was  a  Hapsbufg.  had  conjiqiand^ji  the 
bwiss  to  ioin  the  Swabian  Bund,  organized  by  German 
iioblui>^    the  ^wiss,  iiKe  Americans  tiiree  hundred  years 
later,  objected  to  putting  themselves  under  a  government 
in  which  they  would  not  be  represented,  and  refused. vf 
About  this  time  the  people  of  Graubiinden,  fearing  Aus-     * 
trian  aggression,  asked  to  be  taken  in  under  the  protec-     If 
tion  of  the  League.    Their  request  was  granted  and  the  Susfij^ft^ 
Tyrolese  state  made  war  on  the  Swiss  as  a  result,  seek-  VjQftjT* 
ing  and  receiving  the  help  of  the  Swabian  Bund.    Battles 
were  soon  being  fought  all  along  the  Rhine  from  Basel 
to  Graubiinden. 

Forces  of  Emperor  Maximilian  were  badly  defeated 
and  on  ten  occasions  the  Swiss  routed  the  Swabians, 
only  suffering  defeat  twice  themselves. 

The  story  of  the  Swabian  War  is  rich  with  heroic 
exploits  and  military  accomplishments.  It  went  a  long 
way  in  still  further  adding  to  the  prestige  of  the  Swiss 
as  a  people  in  arms. 

By  the  treaty  of  Basel  in  September,  1499,  peace  was 
reestablished  and  the  League  increased  its  territory  con- 
siderably. 

CANTONS  INCREASED  TO  THIRTEEN. 

In  1 501  Basel  and  Schaffhausen  were  admitted  as 
Cantons.  Basel,  in  particular,  was  an  important  acquisi- 
tion for  she  was  a  thriving  center  of  trade,  was  very 
rich  and  her  university  had  been  a  noted  seat  of  learning 
since  its  establishment  in  1460. 

Appenzell  was  admitted  as  the  thirteenth  Canton  in 
1513.  The  Prince-Abbot  of  St.  Gall,  who  had  ruled  Ap- 
penzell, protested   vigorously,  but  the   League  did  not 

35 


heed  his  objections  in  this  opportunity  to  increase  its 
own  strength.  No  further  additions  were  made  to  the 
League  until  the  Napoleonic  era  at  the  beginning  of  the 
nineteenth  century.  \    . 

*  K         SWISS  FREE  AND  THEIR  FAVOR  SOUGHT. 

__!?  The  treaty  of  Basel  had  the  eiJect  of   freeing  the 

Cantons  from  the  control  of  the  Empire  even  though  it 
did  not  specifically  provide  for  that.  Thenceforth  the 
League  wasvirtually  a  sovereign  nation,  although  it  was 
not  «Trtirth<rPeace~oi  Westphalia,  a  century  and  a  half 
later,  thaFlts~  autonomy  was  formally  acknowledged  by 
Austria. 

The  Swabian  War  had  so  impressed  neighboring 
states  with  the  superiority  of  Swiss  arms,  that  Wur- 
temberg  and  Bavaria  hastened  to  conclude  alliances  with 
the  League.  Even  Emperor  Maximilian  made  the  strong- 
est protestations  of  friendship  for  the  sturdy  Alpine 
people  who  had  frustrated  his  designs  of  conquest. 

Charles  VIIL,  upon  his  accession  to  the  throne  of 
France,  enUsted  the  aid  of  the  Swiss  in  his  campaign  to 
conquer  Naples.  This  was  the  beginning  of  Swiss  merce- 
nary service  in  Italy,  first  for  the  monarchs  of  France 
and  then  for  the  Pope.  Charles  took  Naples  largely 
through  the  assistance  the  Swiss  gave  him,  and  his  suc- 
cessor, Louis  XII.,  utilized  their  military  strength  to  con- 
quer Milan. 

Louis  had  promised  to  cede  Bellinzona  to  the  League 
in  return  for  its  aid  in  the  Italian  War,  but  did  not  keep 
his  word. 

Consequently  when  Matthaeus  Schinner,  a  priest  of 
Upper  Valais  who  had  risen  to  the  rank  of  Cardinal, 
urged  them  to  join  in  a  five-years'  alliance  with  Pope 

36 


Julius  II.  for  the  purpose  of  driving  the  French  from 
Italy,  the  Swiss  readily  accepted  the  invitation. 

SWISS  DRIVE  FRENCH  FROM  ITALY. 

In  the  service  of  the  Papal  See  the  Swiss  mercenaries 
retook  Milan  in  15 12  from  their  former  allies.  Zwingli, 
the  great  reformer,  tells  how  the  ambassador  of  the  other 
great  powers  appeared  as  suppliants  before  the  victori- 
ous Swiss,  pleading  for  consideration  in  the  expected 
division  of  the  Duchy  of  Milan.  But  the  Swiss  decided 
to  return  the  Duchy  to  Maximilian  Sforza,  from  whom 
the  French  had  taken  it.  Out  of  gratitude,  Sforza  ceded 
Lugano,  Locarno  and  other  territory  to  the  League. 

At  Novaro,  in  1513,  the  Swiss,  still  in  the  service  of 
the  Pope,  decisively  defeated  Louis's  attempt  to  regain 
Milan,  and  when  Francis  I.  ascended  the  throne  of 
France,  he  thought  it  would  be  discreet  to  secure  the 
neutrality  of  the  League  before  endeavoring  to  redeem 
the  lost  Italian  possessions  of  his  house.  Bern,  Freiburg 
and  Solothurn  agreed  to  the  proposals  of  Francis  and 
recalled  their  troops  from  Italy. 

When  the  other  Cantons  were  on  the  verge  of  doing 
the  same  thing,  Cardinal  Schinner  induced  them  to 
change  their  minds,  and  the  prelate  himself  led  the  Swiss 
troops  to  battle  at  Marignano  on  September  13th,  1515. 

From  morning  until  night  the  Swiss  battled  with  the 
French  without  any  decisive  advantages  accruing  to 
either.  At  dark  the  opposing  forces  rested  on  their 
arms,  only  to  renew  the  conflict  more  furiously  at  the 
dawn  of  the  next  day.  For  the  first  time  in  his  life  the 
Chevalier  Bayard  was  put  to  flight,  by  the  Swiss  war- 
riors. A  Swiss  attack  began  the  second  day's  battle 
and  several  times  it  seemed  that  victory  was  about  to 

Z7 


be  theirs,  but  the  French  had  opened  nearby  dykes,  flood- 
ing the  ground  occupied  by  their  opponents.  To  add  to 
the  seriousness  of  the  situation,  a  large  force  of  Vene- 
tians arrived  at  this  juncture  and  threatened  to  cut  off 
the  Swiss  retreat.  Under  the  circumstances  there  was 
nothing  to  do  but  retire,  and  this  the  Swiss  army  did 
in  such  perfect  order,  taking  their  wounded,  guns  and 
banners  with  them,  that  Francis  would  not  permit  his 
troops  to  pursue  them,  so  filled  with  admiration  was  he 
for  their  splendid  military  organization. 

Though  the  Italian  wars  had  been  characterized  by 
mercenary  service  rather  than  by  national  spirit  of  the 
Swiss,  the  League  had  made  through  them  important 
acquisitions,  namely,  Ticino,  Valtellina  and  Chiavenna. 

THE  END  OF  A  GLORIOUS  PERIOD. 

But  the  day  of  Swiss  military  ascendancy  in  Europe 
was  over.  True,  the  defeat  at  Marignano  was  almost  as 
glorious  as  a  victory  and  its  result  was  to  join  the  Swiss 
and  French  in  the  closest  bonds  of  friendship.  Yet, 
from  that  time  on,  France,  not  the  Swiss  League,  was 
supreme. 

By  the  time  the  number  of  Cantons  in  the  League 
had  reached  thirteen  their  governmental  affairs  had  be- 
come fairly  well  defined.  Each  urban  Canton  was  ruled 
by  a  Grand  Council,  while  the  country  Cantons  were 
governed  in  most  instances  by  their  "Landsgemeinden." 
The  latter  were  pure  democracies,  the  Landsgemeinde 
having  its  root  among  the  ancient  Greeks,  and  being  a 
development  of  the  "Volksversammlung''  of  the  old  Ger- 
man tribes,  an  assemblage  of  the  entire  people  to  decide 
important  questions.  The  council  of  the  city  Cantons, 
on  the  other  hand,  was  more  aristocratic,  being  made 

38 


up   of  representatives   of   the   different  classes    in  the 
community. 

The  Landsgemeinde  exists  to  this  day  in  Uri,  Appen- 
zell,  Glarus,  Obwalden  and  Nidwalden.  Presided  over  by 
the  Landammann,  the  citizens  assemble  on  the  last  Sunday 
in  April,  hold  religious  service,  march  in  a  parade  and 
then  proceed  to  inspect  the  yearly  accounts  of  the  Can- 
tons, elect  magistrates  and  other  officials  for  the  ensuing 
year,  and  amend  and  enact  laws. 

CENTRAL  GOVERNMENT  OF  THE  FEDERATION. 

The  source  of  central  authority  was  the  Diet,  or 
Tagsatzung.  Each  Canton  had  one  representative  in  the 
Tagsatzung  which  met  by  turn  at  each  of  the  principal 
towns.  The  position  of  Canton  Director  was  usually 
held  by  the  representative  from  Zurich,  and  he  presided 
over  the  sessions.  Ambassadors  from  foreign  powers 
frequently  attended  the  sessions  of  the  Diet,  especially 
after  the  friendship  of  the  Swiss  became  a  thing  so  much 
to  be  desired. 

During  the  fifteenth  century  the  Tagsatzung  often 
took  on  the  aspect  of  an  international  congress.  But 
from  15 13  to  the  time  of  its  abolishment  in  1848  it  ex- 
erted less  influence  on  European  affairs. 

All  during  the  sixteenth  century  Switzerland  was 
swept  by  the  religious  strife  that  characterized  the  Ref- 
ormation. 

Zwingli,  Calvin  and  BuUinger  were  reformers  whose 
names  were  well  known  in  all  Europe.  Though  inter- 
esting from  a  historical  standpoint,  the  events  of  that 
time  bear  little  significance  to  the  Republic's  military 
development. 

39 


INFLUENCE  OF  FRENCH  ABSOLUTISM. 

In  the  seventeenth  century  Switzerland  fell  strongly 
under  the  influence  of  Louis  XIV.  of  France,  the  high 
priest  of  absolutism.  Indeed,  the  Swiss  Cantons  were 
in  danger  of  becoming  subject  to  Louis,  and  their  own 
government  began  to  take  on  an  aristocratic  tinge. 

Switzerland  succeeded  in  remaining  neutral  ^  fj^iring 
the  Thirty  Years'  War  (1618-1648),  although  her  ter- 
wiuifvvab  kivddiid  on  several  occasions  by  the  belliger- 
ents, especially  the  Swedes. 

The  Peace  of  Westphalia,  which  closed  the  Thirty 
Years'  War,  formally  ratified  the  independence  of  the 
Swiss  Cantons.  This  recognition  of  Swiss  autonomy 
was  chiefly  due  to  the  efforts  of  Burgomaster  Wettstein 
of  Basel,  and  Henry,  Count  of  Orleans,  representative 
of  France  at  the  peace  congress.  This  service  tended 
to  still  further  unite  the  Swiss  and  the  French  in  bonds 
of  friendship. 

Swiss  mercenaries  were  some  of  the  best  soldiers 
Louis  XIV,  had,  and  Swiss  envoys,  to  their  shame,  fre- 
quently permitted  themselves  to  be  bribed  by  Louis.  In 
1663  the  Swiss  alliance  with  France  was  renewed  and 
its  terms  were  all  in  favor  of  France. 

However,  the  Swiss  had  been  giving  refuge  to  the 
Huguenots  and  other  religious  exiles  from  France, 
Geneva  especially  bidding  them  welcome.  Educated  to 
the  real  character  of  Louis  by  these  exiles,  the  Swiss 
gradually  began  to  feel  ashamed  of  their  dealings  with 
the  monarch,  and,  in  1689,  returning  envoys  to  Paris 
were  greeted  as  heroes  in  Bern  and  Zurich  because  they 
had  rejected  Louis'  bribes.  In  the  course  of  time  the 
alliance  with  France  became  a  dead  letter,  although 
Swiss  mercenary  service  continued  to  run  its  evil  course. 

40 


STRUGGLES  FOR  CLASS  SUPREMACY. 

The  eighteenth  century  in  Switzerland  is  chiefly 
featured  by  the  attempts  of  the  aristocratic  classes  to 
attain  supremacy  in  the  Cantons,  even  asserting  their 
claims  to  overrule  the  "Landsgemeinden"  in  the  country 
Cantons. 

The  peasants  were  oppressed  and  many  uprisings  took 
place.  At  the  same  time  the  old  religious  disputes  con- 
tlnueJ"to  rage.  Bern  was  the  stronghold  of  Swiss  aris- 
tocracy when  Napoleon  Bonaparte  began  to  make  his 
power  felt  in  the  lands  surrounding  France.  The  French 
Revnliitinn  Itself  h?^'^  ^^^  marlr^rl  ^ff^r^t  ir.  Q.y^r]fYf^rh'^'{^ 
'ftilyfti^'TKrdesire  for  "liberty  and  pqi^alitv'^  ^^t^^  }}rf>:^<^f^ 
of  Alpine  peasants.  On  the  other  hand,  the  massacre 
of  the  Swisr\juards,  who  defended  French  royalty  at 
the  Tuileries  against  the  Paris  mob,  and  were  slaught- 
ered rather  than  surrender,  aroused  indignation  in  Swit- 
zerland. 

NAPOLEON  TURNS  TO  SWISS  AFFAIRS. 

Meanwhile,  the  Helvetic  Club  had  been  organized  in 
Paris  by  discontented  Swiss  bent  on  freeing  their  native 
land  from  the  rule  of  the  aristocracy.  This  club  at- 
tracted the  attention  of  Napoleon  and  the  Directory,  for 
they  saw  in  it  an  opportunity  to  erect  in  Switzerland  a 
government  that  would  be  in  sympathy  with  and  sub- 
ject to  the  French  Republic. 

Bern,  Freiburg  and  Solothurn  stood  against  this 
Napoleonic  influence.  Peter  Ochs  of  Basel,  a  brilliant 
man  who  had  fallen  un3er  the  domination  of  Bonaparte, 
was  called  to  Paris  to  draft  a  new  constitution  for 
Switzerland,  Napoleon  having  determined  to  dictate  its 
governmental  affairs.     In  January  1798  the  Tagsatzung 

41 


met  and  vainly  tried  to  bolster  up  Swiss  national  spirit, 
but  it  was  useless  to  try  to  stem  the  coming  storm.  The 
Tagsatzung  adjourned  in  confusion  on  February  ist. 

Bonaparte  sent  Brune  in  command  of  a  French  force 
againsi^  Bern.  Solothurn  and  Freiburg,  Bern's  chief 
supporters,  surrendered  to  Brune,  and  Bern  had  no  help 
from  the  other  Cantons.  The  Bernese  put  up  a  desper- 
ate resistance  and,  indeed,  scored  some  preliminary  vic- 
tories over  the  French,  but  the  latter  entered  the  city 
on  March  5th. 

The  Directory  did  away  with  the  old  Swiss  League 
and  established  in  its  place  the  "One  and  Undivided 
Helvetic  Republic,''  compelling  the  adoption  of  the  con- 
stitution drafted  by  Ochs.  The  Cantons  were  re-divided, 
twenty-two  of  them  in  all  being  established.  Aarau, 
Lucerne  and  Bern  in  turn  were  made  capitals  of  the 
new  Republic.  Legislative  power  was  vested  in  a  Senate 
and  Grand  Council,  and  executive  authority  in  a  Di- 
rectory of  five  members  and  a  Ministry  of  four. 

BONAPARTE'S  SUBJECTION  OF  SWITZERLAND. 

The  city  Cantons  submitted  to  the  new  government, 
but  the  country  districts  made  stout  resistance.  The 
Forest  Cantons,  especially,  opposed  French  domination, 
and  the  men  of  Schwyz,  under  the  young  officer  Reding, 
gained  noteworthy  victories  over  the  French  at  Schin- 
dellegi,  Arth  and  Morgarten. 

On  September  9,  1798,  a  French  force  of  sixteen 
thousand  under  Schauenburg  was  met  by  two  thousand 
Swiss  near  Stanz.  Even  the  women  and  children  helped 
fight  the  invaders  and  held  them  off  for  two  days.  But 
after  a  terrible  slaughter  Stanz  itself  was  taken  and, 
for  the  time  being,  Swiss  independence  was  at  an  end. 

42 


As  a  punishment  for  this  resistance  Napoleon  combined 
the  three  Forest  Cantons  and  Zug  into  one,  thus  redu- 
cing the  number  to  nineteen. 

The  ''One  and  Undivided  Helvetic  Republic"  endured 
for  five  years  until  1803.  The  Napoleonic  idea  of  com- 
pletely centralizing  the  Swiss  government  was  doomed 
to  failure  from  the  start.  The  country  Cantons  lost 
th^  "Landsgemeinden/'  the  cities  were  deprived  of 
their  council,  and  the  whole  scheme  of  government  that 
had  been  built  up  through  so  many  generations  was 
knocked  down  at  one  stroke. 

Nevertheless,  many  beneficial  reforms  were  instituted 
during  the  days  of  the  Helvetic  Republic,  and  new  ideas 
were  born  that  crystallized  into  reality  a  half-century 
later.  The  residents  of  subject  lands  were  granted  equal 
rights  of  citizenship  with  those  of  the  rest  of  the  state, 
limitations  on  trade  were  lifted  and  freedom  of  worship, 
of  the  press  and  speech  were  guaranteed. 

Yet  these  guarantees  of  liberty  were  violated  as 
creatures  of  the  French  gained  control  of  the  Swiss 
Directory.  Among  these  latter  was  Ochs,  the  tool  of 
Napoleon.  Bonaparte's  design  was  to  put  Switzerland 
into  complete  submission  to  himself.  He  commanded 
the  Swiss  to  furnish  eighteen  thousand  soldiers  for  his 
army.  This  levy  caused  an  uproar  in  Switzerland,  thou- 
sands of  the  Swiss  hiring  themselves  as  mercenaries  in 
the  service  of  Napoleon's  foes.  Numerous  patriots  like 
Reding  and  Lavater  were  thrown  into  prison. 

ALLIES  INVADE  SWITZERLAND. 

Napoleon  compelled  the  Helvetic  Republic  to  enter 
into  an  offensive  and  defensive  alliance  with  France. 
This,   of   course,   destroyed    Switzerland's    status    as   a 

43 


neutral  state  and  she  was  straightway  invaded  by  the 
Austrian  and  Russian,  enemies  of  Bonaparte. 

This  situation  naturally  brings  to  mind  the  splendidly 
immune  condition  in  which  Switzerland  finds  herself  to- 
day.^^  179S  her  neutrality  could  be  wiped  out  at  the 
whim\f  a  tyrant;  in  1914  her  own  efficient  military  sys- 
tem was  enough  to  defend  her  neutrality  against  the 
designs  of  any  or  all  the  great  powers  of  Europe^jj^ 

The  conservatives  among  the  Swiss  welcomed  the 
invaders  as  joyously  as  the  radicals  had  greeted  the 
French  liberators.  Switzerland  was  occupied  and  turned 
into  a  military  camp.  But  the  Austro-Russian  alpine 
campaign  was  a  failure.  Napoleon's  generals  succeeded 
in  driving  them  from  the  country,  and  the  Helvetic  Re- 
public still  stood. 

Napoleon  kept  his  army  of  occupation  in  Switzer- 
land, and  the  unmeasured  looting  of  the  Swiss  people 
that  was  carried  on  to  provision  the  troops  caused  a 
revulsion  of  feeUng  against  the  French  and  the  govern- 
ment of  the  Helvetic  RepubUc.  The  Swiss  Directory 
was  overthrown  four  times  in  uprisings  during  the  five 
years  up  to  1803. 

The  most  serious  disturbance  took  place  right  after 
the  French  troops  were  withdrawn  in  July,  1802.  The 
members  of  the  Helvetic  government  were  forced  to  flee 
from  their  seat  at  Bern  to  Lausanne.  At  this  juncture 
Napoleon  offered  to  act  as  "mediator,"  and  Marshal  Ney 
led  forty  thousand  soldiers  to  Switzerland  to  enforce 
order. 

Napoleon  evidently  realized  that  the  Helvetic  Re- 
pubHc,  as  he  had  constituted  it,  could  not  endure.  The 
majority  of  the  Cantons  bitterly  resented  having  been 
deprived  of  all  self-government  for  the  purpose  of  com- 

44 


pletely  centralizing  authority.  Early  in  1803  Napoleon 
summoned  sixty-three  delegates  from  the  Cantons  to 
confer  with  him  at  Paris.  Though  forty-eight  of  these 
delegates  were  pronounced  Federalists,  the  Emperor 
showed  no  inclination  to  ride  rough-shod  over  the  de- 
sires of  the  conservatives. 

THE  MEDIATION  ACTS. 

Under  the  plan  finally  adopted,  central  authority  was 
maintained  in  the  creation  of  a  Tagsatzung  with  wide 
powers,  but  at  the  same  time  the  "Landsgemeinden" 
were  restored  to  the  Forest  Cantons,  the  Councils  to 
the  cities,  and  those  districts  that  had  been  subject  lands 
before  the  day  of  the  Helvetic  Republic  were  granted 
full  self-government. 

Graubiinden,  St.  Gall,  Thurgau,  Aargau,  Vaud  and 
Ticino  were  created  Cantons  and  admitted  on  an  equal 
footing  with  the  other  thirteen.  The  Cantons  were  for- 
bidden to  wage  wars  one  with  another,  or  to  enter  into 
separate  alliances.  Mercenary  wars  were  strictly  pro- 
hibited and  Napoleon  saw  to  it  that  there  was  a  provi- 
sion in  the  new  constitution  preventing  the  Federal  gov- 
ernment from  maintaining  any  larger  military  force  than 
was  necessary  to  preserve  mere  law  and  order  within 
the  country.  Cantons  whose  population  exceeded  one 
hundred  thousand  were  given  two  votes  each  in  the 
Tagsatzung,  while  the  smaller  Cantons  each  had  one  vote. 

Regardless  of  Napoleon's  aims,  the  Mediation  act 
period  (1803-1815)  was  one  of  peace  for  Switzerland, 
while  the  rest  of  Europe  was  drenched  in  blood.  The 
effect  was  a  distinct  gain  for  the  alpine  nation.  Schools, 
agricultural  colleges  and  institutions  of  letters,  art,  music 
and  science,  developing  noteworthy  novelists,  poets,  mu- 

45 


sicians,  artists  and  educators,  sprang  up.  Pestalozzi  and 
his  disciples  accomplished  much  of  their  great  work  of 
educational  advancement  during  this  period.  Escher,  an 
aristocrat  who  devoted  his  talents,  wealth,  and  finally 
sacrificed  his  life  in  the  interests  of  the  poorer  classes, 
constructed  the  canal  between  Walensee  and  the  lake 
of  Zurich,  thus  draining  twenty-eight  thousand  acres  of 
swamp  land.  The  introduction  of  machinery  caused 
trade  to  take  long  steps  forward  and  Switzerland  be- 
came a  hive  of  industry.  Spinning  mills,  forerunners 
of  Switzerland's  great  industry  of  today,  had  their  be- 
ginning at  about  this  time  in  St.  Gall. 

Nevertheless,  there  was  still  much  cause  for  com- 
plaint. Napoleon  compelled  the  Swiss  to  furnish  sixteen 
thousand  soldiers  for  constant  service  in  his  army,  and 
this  levy  and  the  taxes  imposed  fell  hard  on  the  peasants. 
Toward  1812  signs  of  rebellion  had  culminated  in  open 
defiance  of  Napoleon  by  Reding  and  other  patriots  on 
the  floor  of  the  Tagsatzung.  But  any  plans  of  punish- 
ment Napoleon  may  have  had  in  mind  vanished  with 
his  disastrous  Russian  campaign.  Then  followed  the 
Battle  of  Leipzig,  Napoleon's  abdication  and  the  entry 
of  the  Allies  into  Paris.  The  Swiss,  satisfied  with  their 
form  of  government,  although  not  at  the  way  in  which 
it  had  always  been  administered,  refused  to  join  forces 
with  the  Holy  Alliance. 

NAPOLEON'S  WORK  UNDONE. 

The  little  Swiss  army  of  fifteen  thousand  was  placed 
on  the  border  in  the  hope  that  the  country's  neutrality 
might  be  protected,  but  when  one  hundred  and  seventy 
thousand  Germans  and  Austrians  appeared  on  their 
march  to  Paris  the  idea  of  resistance  was  abandoned. 

46 


The  Allies  did  little  damage  to  the  country  itself  on  their 
way  through,  but  on  December  29,  181 3,  the  Tagsatzung 
was  compelled  to  abolish  itself,  and  Napoleon's  Media- 
tion Act  was  wiped  out. 

By  the  peace  of  Paris,  May  31,  1814,  the  independ- 
ence of  Switzerland  was  ratified  by  the  conquerors  of 
Bonaparte. 

With  the  overthrow  of  the  Mediation  Act,  civil  strife, 
the  old  warfare  between  conservatives  and  radicals,  broke 
out  anew  in  Switzerland.  Bern  reasserted  her  claim 
to  sovereignty  over  Vaud  and  Aargau,  and  was  sup- 
ported in  her  contention  by  Freiburg,  Lucerne,  Solo- 
thurn  and  the  Forest  Cantons.  Zurich  took  the  lead  in 
standing  out  for  maintaining  the  existence  of  the  full 
nineteen  Cantons.  The  result  was,  there  were  for  a  time 
two  governments  in  Switzerland,  each  with  a  separate 
Diet. 

Finally  a  joint  congress  was  arranged  to  meet  at 
Zurich  and  endeavor  to  reach  a  compromise.  This  meet- 
ing is  known  as  the  Long  Diet,  for  it  sat  for  more  than 
a  year,  and  was  characterized  by  constant  and  acrimoni- 
ous bickerings. 

The  constitution  for  a  reunited  Switzerland  was  still 
incomplete  in  many  important  particulars  when  it  was 
submitted  to  the  Vienna  Congress,  met  to  rearrange  the 
map  of  Europe,  for  approval. 

VIENNA  CONGRESS  TAKES  A  HAND.        "/^ 

The  representatives  of  the  allied  nations  saw  in  an 
independent  Switzerland  a  strong  barrier  against  France, 
so  they  set  about  with  a  will  adjusting  the  points  of 
dispute  among  the  Cantons.  Bern  was  mollified  with 
the  addition  of  some  extra  territory,  and  surrendered 

47 


her  claims  to  Vaud  and  Aargau.  Valais,  Geneva  and 
Neuchatel  were  added  as  Cantons,  bringing  the  total  up 
to  twenty-two,  where  it  stands  today. 

The  constitution  of  1815  restored  many  of  the  privi- 
leges of  the  aristocratic  classes,  and  several  of  the  Can- 
tons were  given  sovereign  power  at  the  expense  of  the 
central  government,  although  a  Tagsatzung  composed  of 
one  representative  from  each  Canton  was  provided  for. 
The  cities  were  permitted  to  largely  retain  their  su- 
premacy over  the  people  of  surrounding  country  districts. 

For  thirty-three  years  Switzerland  was  governed  un- 
der the  constitution  given  her  by  the  Congress  of  Vienna. 
This  period  splits  into  two  divisions,  that  from  1815  to 
1830,  and  1830-1848.  During  the  first  fifteen  years  the 
great  mass  of  the  Swiss  people  passively  submitted  to 
the  politicial  reaction  that  had  set  in. 

But  even  then  a  number  of  the  apostles  of  liberalism 
were  at  work,  political  clubs  were  organized  and  the 
seeds  planted  that  were  later  to  blossom  into  the  dem- 
ocratic Switzerland  of  today.  But  if  political  progress 
was  at  a  standstill,  considerable  advancement  was  made 
along  military  Hnes  during  the  years  following  181 5.  The 
central  school  for  army  officers  was  established  at  Thun, 
and  the  Federal  army  was  increased  from  fifteen  thou- 
sand to  thirty  thousand  men. 

^EFFECTS  OF  THE  REVOLUTION  OF  1830. 

\rhe  French  Revolution  of  1830  had  a  marked  in- 
fluence on  Switzerland.  The  yearnings  for  equality 
which  had  been  smothered  at  the  beginning  of  the  cen- 
tury began  to  show  themselves  anew  all  over  Europe, 
Switzerland  includecO^The  Cantons,  with  the  exception 
of  Glarus,  Uri,  and  Unterwalden,  proceeded  to  revise 

48 


their  fundamental  laws.  Even  Bern,  old  stronghold  of 
the  reactionaries,  grew  progressive.  Zurich  made  her 
Council  truly  representative  by  giving  the  citizens  of  her 
country  districts  two-thirds  of  its  membership.  Uni- 
versities and  high  schools  were  founded  throughout  the 
country,  and  material  progress  was  made  in  learning 
and  culture.  The  eighteen-year  period  following  1830 
was  one  of  regeneration,  and  equipped  the  Swiss  people 
to  take  advantage  of  their  opportunity  in  1848. 

The  only  discordant  note  during  these  years  was  the 
warfare  that  broke  out  again  between  Catholic  and 
Protestants.  So  intense  did  the  religious  controversy 
become  that  the  Protestant  Cantons  formed  a  league 
among  themselves  known  as  the  Siebner-Concordat.  In 
opposition  to  this  the  Catholic  League  was  organized 
by  those  Cantons  which  had  not  embraced  the  Reforma- 
tion doctrines.  An  attempt  in  1832  to  strengthen  the 
power  of  the  Federal  government  was  defeated  in  the 
Diet,  largely  because  of  these  religious  animosities. 

SONDERBUND  WAR. 

The  trouble  culminated  in  the  Sonderbund  War  of 
1847.  This  struggle  was  essentially  one  between  the  old 
forces  of  reaction  and  those  of  liberalism,  but  it  was 
intensified  by  the  religious  squabbles  between  Catholics 
and  Protestants.  Uri,  Schwyz,  Unterwalden,  Zug,  Frei- 
burg and  Valais  had  formed  a  new  League,  standing 
for  the  things  that  the  old  Catholic  League  had  repre- 
sented. In  1847  the  Protestants  gained  majority  in  the 
Diet,  and  that  body  ordered  the  six  Cantons  to  dissolve 
their  Bund.  Civil  war  was  inevitable.  France,  Austria, 
and  Germany  sided  with  the  Sonderbund.  England 
favored  the  Protestants  and  rendered  them  a  great  ser- 

49 


vice  by  delaying  action  against  the  Swiss  by  the  Powers. 
The  Sonderbund  prepared  for  the  struggle,  raising  an 
army  of  seventy-five  thousand.  The  fact  that  General 
Salis-Soglio,  a  Protestant  from  Biinden,  was  placed  in 
command  of  the  Sonderbund  indicates  that  religious  ani- 
mosity was  not,  after  all,  the  chief  cause  of  the  strife.. 
The  Diet  raised  ninety-eight  thousand  soldiers  and 
placed  General  Dufour  of  Geneva  in  command.  Dufour 
was  an  exceptionally  able  tactician  and  was  of  the  old 
Napoleonic  school  of  soldiers.  It'  was  under  his  direction 
that  the  Swiss  topographical  maps,  still  in  existence, 
and  the  first  of  their  kind,  were  made.  Dufour's  prose- 
cution of  the  campaign  was  so  successful  that  it  only 
lasted  twenty-five  days,  from  November  4th  to  Novem- 
ber 29th.  Losses  were  not  great  on  either  side  and 
Dufour  was  hailed  as  the  national  hero,  even  by  the 
people  of  the  Sonderbund,  who  had  become  easily  re- 
conciled to  their  defeat. 

V?^o  more  striking  proof  of  the  real  unity  of  the  Swiss 
pe^le  could  he  had  than  the  fact  that  hut  two  months 
after  the  close  of  this  ciwil  war,  when  revolution  held 
sway  throughout  all  the  neighboring  states  and  Switzer- 
land zvas  threatened  with  invasion,  Catholic  and  Protes- 
tant, reactionary  and  liberal,  the  men  from  the  cities  and 
those  from  the  country  districts,  rallied  to  the  colors 
with  equal  patriotic  zeal,  their  only  rivalry  to  show  which 
would  do  the  most  for  their  native  land.  The  same 
splendid  spirit  of  "one  for  all  and  all  for  one''  has  pre- 
vailed in  Switzerland  ever  since^^ 


50 


The  i*iCTURLsguE  City  of  Thun,  vvlth  the  Castle. 


HISTORICAL  INTRODUCTION- 


II.     SINCE   1848.     IMPORTANT  LEGISLATION. 

With  the  splendid  example  of  self-immolation  of  the 
once  warring  faiths  and  parties  behind  them,  small 
wonder  the  representatives  of  the  Swiss  who  met  at  Bern 
in  1848  to  frame  a  fundamental  law  for  a  reunited 
people  were  imbued  with  a  high  resolve  that  lives  even 
to  this  day  in  the  document  that  stands  as  the  bulwark 
of  Swiss  freedom,  law  and  justice. 

In  many  respects  the  Swiss  Constitution  of  1848  is 
modelled  after  the  Constitution  of  the  United  States. 
That  it  is,  generally  speaking,  more  democratic  and  pro- 
gressive then  our  Constitution  may  be  laid  to  the  fact 
that  it  was  drafted  three-quarters  of  a  century  later  than 
was  ours. 

STRUCTURE  OF  SWISS  GOVERNMENT. 

The  ^^'deral  law-making  body  consists  of  the  'Wa- 
tionalraf  corresponding  to  our  House  of  Representa- 
tives, to  which  districts  of  20,000  inhabitants  elect  each 
one  member;  and  the  ''Stdnderat/'  taking  the  place  of 
the  American  Senate,  in  which  each  Canton  is  entitled 
to  two  members. 

Laws  must  be  adopted  separately  by  the  two  cham- 
bers.   The  two  houses  meet  jointly — Federal  Assembly — 

51 


to  elect  members  of  the  Federal  Council,  Federal  Court 
and  the  General  of  the  Army. 

The  executive  authority  is  placed  in  the  hands  of 
a  body  of  seven  men,  called  ''Bundesraf  (Federal 
Council) . 

The  chairman  of  this  body  is  the  President  of  the 
Republic.  He  is  elected  for  one  year  and  cannot  suc- 
ceed himself.  The  triennial  election  of  the  members  of 
tTie  Bundesrat  is  in  practice  a  mere  reelection,  unless  a 
member  resigns  or  dies  during  the  years  of  administra- 
tion, necessitating  the  election  of  a  new  member. 
V  N  The  business  of  the  Federal  Council  is  arranged  in 

seven   departments,  with  one  member  as  the  head   of 
each. 

The  Federal  Council  and  Federal  Assembly  meet  in 
Bern,  the  capital  of  the  Swiss  Republic. 

The  highest  Federal  judicial  authority  is  the  "Bun- 
desgericht"  {Federal  Court)  consisting  of  24  judges  and 
9  alternates.    It  sits  in  Lausanne. 

"S^TTie  continued  successful  existence  of  a  democracy 
demands  that  every  citizen  take  a  thorough  interest  in 
public  affairs.  The  average  Swiss  considers  he  is  in  duty 
bound  to  interest  himself  in  the  affairs  of  the  State 
to  such  a  degree  that  he  uses  his  ballot  at  each  election. 
In  many  a  Canton  the  right  of  vote  is  coupled  with  the 
,   duty  to  do  so,  and  failure  to  vote  is  penalizecQ^ 

Several  times  since  1848  changes  in  the  military  arti- 
cles of  the  constitution  have  been  made  and,  of  course, 
all  such  changes  had  to  be  submitted  to  a  referendum. 
Not  always  were  the  proposed  measures  acted  favorably 
upon  by  the  people,  and  in  some  instances  they  had  to 
be  brought  to  a  vote  time  and  time  again,  frequently 
greatly  modified,  until  the  people  finally  enacted  them. 

52 


^Cca 


cause  the  people  had  a  chance  to  adopt  or  reject 
laws  pertaining  to  defense,  the  Swiss  military  system  is 
a  practical  and  popular  one\ 

CANTONAL  GOVERNMENT. 

In  the  Cantons  the  executive  power  is  exercised  by 
a  body  of  from  five  to  seven  men,  instead  of  a  Governor 
as  in  our  States,  called  the  ''Cantonsratf' 

The  legislature  of  each  Canton  has  but  a  7  single 
chamber,  and  is  called  the  "Grosse  Rat!' 

Switzerland  has  thrge  official  languages,  German, 
French  and  Italian.  GermSti  ia  «pokui  hy^^Sofioo 
inhabitants  of  the  Cantons  of  Bern,  Lucerne,  Zurich, 
Basel,  Solothurn,  Zug,  Aargau,  Thurgau,  St.  Gallen, 
Appenzell,  Uri,  Schwyz,  Unterwalden,  Glarus,  Schaff- 
hausen  and  the  greater  part  of  Graubiinden.  French 
by  800,000  inhabitants  of  the  Cantons  of  Geneva,  Vaud, 
Valais,  Neuchatel,  and  Freiburg;  Italian  by  300,000  in- 
habitants of  the  Canton  Ticino  and  part  of  Graubiinden 
and  Valais. 

The  official  language  in  the  German-speaking  Cantons 
is  German,  in  the  French-speaking  is  French,  and  in 
the  Canton  Ticino  is  Italian. 

In  debates  of  the  national  government  bodies  any 
one  of  the  three  languages  can  be  used,  as  almost  every 
representative  masters  all  of  them. 

TRANSITION  FROM  PURE  DEMOCRACY. 

We  have  seen  how,  in  the  early  development  of  the 
Swiss  Republic  the  country  Cantons  were  governed 
through  "Landsgemeinden,"  assemblages  of  all  the  male 
adults.  To  this  day,  in  Uri  and  in  other  remote  sections 
of  Switzerland  the  Landsgemeinde  still  exists,  but  for 

53 


the  most  part  this  form  of  pure  democracy  has  given 
way  to  representative  government.  The  transition  was 
made  necessary  by  growth  ^f  population  and  the  more 
complex  affairs  of  the  modern  nation. 

But  the  Swiss,  though  realizing  they  could  not  con- 
tinue to  govern  themselves  through  cantonal  assemblages, 
were  chary  about  delegating  to  their  representatives 
power  so  absolute  that  they,  themselves,  would  have  no 
direct  voice  in  public  affairs.  Hence,  the  Initiative  and 
Referendum  were  incorporated  as  fundamental  princi- 
ples of  Switzerland's  government. 

^Wie  American  people  are  witnesses  to  the  evils  that 
spring  up  in  so-called  representative  government  where, 
because  •  the  people  have  no  curb  upon  their  officials 
during  their  terms  of  office,  they  cease  to  be  representa- 
tive of  the  people.  Professional  politicians,  political 
bosses  and  private  interests  exercise  greater  control  over 
many  a  public  official  than  do  the  voters  who  placed 
him  in  office  and  who  pay  the  taxes  to  run  the 
government^ 

SOUND  RADICALISM  OF  THE  SWISS. 

It  was,  then,  a  critical  juncture  in  Switzerland's 
national  development  when  conditions  necessitated  that 
simple  democracy  be  replaced  by  the  representative  form 
of  government.  No  doubt,  had  the  molders  of  her  desti- 
ny had  less  faith  in  the  ability  of  the  people  to  rule 
themselves,  had  they  been  timid  conservatives  instead 
of  sound  radicals,  the  Initiative  and  Referendum  woirid 
not  have  been  established,  and  the  plant  of  Swiss  re- 
publicanism would  have  been  handicapped  in  its  growth. 

Every  Canton  except  Freiburg  has  some  form  of  the 
Referendum  in  its  constitution.     On  certain  questions 

54 


the  Referendum  is  compulsory;  that  is,  proposed  legis- 
lation coming  under  the  prescribed  class  must  be  ap- 
proved by  a  vote  of  the  people  before  it  becomes  law. 
In  other  cases  the  people  have  the  option,  by  petition, 
of  preventing  the  final  enactment  of  a  measure  until 
they  have  voted  on  it. 

The  constitution  of  the  republic  provides  for  both 
compulsory  and  optional  referendum  on  Federal  legis- 
lation. Proposed  constitutional  amendments  must  be 
submitted  to  a  popular  vote  and  adopted  before  they 
are  in  effect.  If  the  two  houses  of  the  Federal  legis- 
lature agree  upon  a  constitutional  amendment  it  is  then 
submitted  to  a  vote  of  the  people  of  all  the  Cantons, 
and  if  it  receives  a  majority  of  the  entire  popular  vote 
and  also  receives  a  majority  in  twelve  of  the  twenty- 
two  Cantons,  it  is  incorporated  in  the  constitution. 
However,  if  the  two  houses  cannot  agree  on  the  ques- 
tion of  an  amendment,  or  if  50,000  voters  petition  for 
an  amendment  in  the  absence  of  any  action  by  either 
house,  then  it  is  submitted  to  the  people  to  decide 
whether  there  shall  be  any  amendment  at  all.  If  they 
vote  in  the  affirmative  the  Federal  legislature  is  dis- 
solved, new  elections  are  held,  the  Executive  Council 
prepares  the  amendment  and  submits  it  to  the  incoming 
legislature  who,  in  turn,  places  it  before  the  people  for 
final  adoption  or  rejection  at  a  Referendum. 

THE  REFERENDUM. 

Article  89  of  the  constitution  provides  for  the  exer- 
cise of  the  optional  Referendum  on  Federal  laws.  A 
petition  signed  by  30,000  voters  requires  the  submission 
of  any  proposed  Federal  statute,  not  of  an  immediately 
urgent  nature,  to  a  Referendum.    The  same  course  must 

55 


be  taken  when  eight  Cantons,  through  their  legislative 
bodies,  demand  a  popular  vote  upon  any  proposed  Feder- 
al enactment. 

Cantonal  Referendum  systems  are  of  wide  variety, 
being  hardly  identical  in  any  two  states.  They  range 
all  the  way  from  the  system  in  vogue  in  Valais,  where 
only  propositions  entailing  an  expenditure  of  more  than 
$12,000  are  submitted  to  the  Referendum,  to  that  in 
the  half-Canton  of  Basselland  where  almost  every 
measure  passed  by  the  legislature  must  be  submitted  to 
a  vote  of  the  people. 

A  rude  form  of  the  Referendum  existed  in  the  Can- 
tons of  Graubiinden  and  Valais  in  the  sixteenth  century. 
The  modern  Referendum  was  first  adopted  by  the  Can- 
ton of  St.  Gall  in  1830.  It  was  called  the  Veto,  and 
provided  that  proposed  laws  should  be  submitted  to 
a  popular  vote  whenever  a  certain  number  of  citizens 
so  demanded.  Other  Cantons  lost  no  time  in  adopting 
this  innovation  and  it  soon  became  almost  universal 
throughout  the  republic. 

In  America  the  Referendum  is  considered  by  many 
to  be  a  revolutionary  and  extremely  radical  idea.  Radi- 
cal it  may  be  in  the  direction  of  returning  to  the  people 
real  self-government,  but  its  results  in  Switzerland  have 
never  been  so  radical  that  they  have  exceeded  the  bounds 
of  sound  common  sense  in  government.  The  Refer- 
endum in  Switzerland  has  been  radical  in  its  prevention 
of  public  extravagances;  in  the  opportunity  it  has  given 
the  people  who  pay  the  taxes  to  see  to  it  that  their 
money  is  not  squandered  in  sinecure  jobs  and  graft;  but 
that  kind  of  result  is  deemed  unduly  radical  only  by 
those  who  find  no  chance  for  public  plunder  when  the 
people  really  rule  themselves. 

56 


DIRECT  GOVERNMENT  SUCCESSFUL. 

Insofar  as  untried  innovations,  experiments  and  im- 
practicable measures  are  concerned,  the  Swiss  people 
have  shown  themselves  as  conservative  in  the  exercise 
of  the  Referendum  as  any  graybeard  solon  who  ever 
sat  in  a  senate. 

The  application  of  the  Referendum  has  been  an 
educating  force  in  Switzerland  and  has  trained  her  citi- 
zens to  take  an  active,  thoughtful  interest  in  public  af- 
fairs. The  people  discuss  the  questions  to  be  put  before 
them  and,  as  a  rule,  vote  intelligently  upon  them,  there 
being  none  of  the  blind  partisan  considerations  th,at 
influence  suffrage  for  candidates. 

Where  the  Referendum  is  in  vogue  legislators  soon 
learn  that  it  is  inexpedient  as  well  as  useless  for  them 
to  try  to  enact  undesirable  laws.  For  not  only  will  the 
voters,  in  all  probability,  kill  vicious  measures,  but  the 
very  publicity  attendant  upon  a  Referendum  is  sure  to 
attract  unenviable  attention  to  the  officials  who  sponsored 
the  bad  law.  The  natural  result  is  that  men  in  office 
conduct  themselves  with  an  eye  to  the  opinion  of  their 
constituents,  and  a  high  type  of  men,  generally  speaking, 
are  elected  to  office. 

THE  INITIATIVE. 

Seventeen  of  the  twenty-two  Swiss  Cantons  have 
complemented  the  Referendum  with  the  Initiative. 
Thus,  not  only  can  the  people  themselves  prevent  bad 
legislation,  but  they  can  propose  and  enact  any  laws 
they  desire  which  their  legislative  bodies  have  not  seen 
fit  to  give  them. 

The  Canton  of  Vaud  was  the  pioneer  in  adopting 
the  Initiative  in   1845.     It  was  not  a  success  there  at 

57 


first  because  the  Referendum  was  not  also  in  force.  The 
Initiative  has  always  been  a  failure  unless  accompanied 
by  the  Referendum. 

The  incorporation  into  the  Federal  Constitution  in 
1 89 1  of  a  provision  permitting  constitutional  amend- 
ments to  be  proposed  through  the  Initiative  was  a  mile- 
stone in  the  progress  of  democracy.  It  was  another  of 
those  radical  measures,  the  radicalism  of  which  con- 
sists of  the  opportunity  they  afford  for  real  popular 
government. 

The  language  of  article  121  of  the  Federal  Consti- 
tution explains  as  nearly  as  could  be  the  means  by  which 
Swiss  citizens  can  amend  their  own  fundamental  law 
without  the  intervention  of  representatives.  It  is  direct 
government  in  its  purest  and  most  workable  form.  Arti- 
cle 121  reads  as  follows: 

CONSTITUTION  CAN  BE  AMENDED 
BY  THE  PEOPLE. 

"The  Popular  Initiative  may  be  used  when  50,000 
Swiss  voters  present  a  petition  for  the  enactment,  the 
abolition,  or  alteration  of  certain  articles  of  the  Federal 
Constitution. 

"When  several  different  subjects  are  proposed  for 
amendment  or  for  enactment  in  the  Federal  Constitution 
by  means  of  the  Popular  Initiative,  each  must  form  the 
subject  of  a  special  petition. 

"Petitions  may  be  represented  in  the  form  of  general 
suggestions  or  of  a  finished  bill.  When  a  petition  is 
presented  in  the  form  of  a  general  suggestion,  and  the 
Federal  Assembly  agrees  thereto,  it  is  the  duty  of  that 
body  to  elaborate  a  partial  amendment  in  the  sense  of 
the  Initiators,  and  to   refer  it  to  the   people   and  the 

58 


Cantons  for  acceptance  or  rejection.  If  the  Federal 
Assembly  does  not  agree  to  the  petition,  then  the  ques- 
tion of  whether  there  shall  be  a  partial  amendment  at 
all  must  be  submitted  to  the  vote  of  the  people,  and  if 
the  majority  of  the  Swiss  voters  express  themselves  in 
the  affirmative,  the  amendment  must  be  taken  in  hand 
by  the  Federal  Assembly  in  the  sense  of  the  people. 

"When  a  petition  is  presented  in  the  form  of  a 
finished  bill,  and  the  Federal  Assembly  agrees  thereto, 
the  bill  must  be  referred  to  the  people  and  the  Cantons 
for  acceptance  or  rejection.  In  case  the  Federal  As- 
sembly does  not  agree,  that  body  can  elaborate  a  bill 
of  its  own,  or  move  to  reject  the  petition,  and  submit 
its  own  bill  or  motion  of  rejection  to  the  vote  of  the 
people  and  the  Cantons  along  with  the  petition.'' 

EARLY  SEEDS  OF  DIRECT  GOVERNMENT. 

From  time  immemorial  the  principle,  thought  not 
the  form,  of  the  Initiative  had  existed  in  those  Cantons 
governed  by  ''Landsgemeinden.''  But  the  right  of  the 
voters  to  initiate  legislation  even  in  those  Cantons  was 
limited  and  restricted  to  such  an  extent  that,  in  some 
cases,  it  was  almost  nullified.  It  was  really  not  until 
Vaud  made  the  experiment  and  Aargau  followed  suit 
a  few  years  later  that  the  Initiative,  as  it  is  now  under- 
stood, was  established  in  Switzerland. 

Of  the  two  Cantons  and  four  half -Cantons  still 
governed  by  "Landsgemeinden,"  Uri,  and  Inner-Rhoden 
permit  any  voter  to  submit  proposals  at  the  cantonal 
assemblage;  Obwalden,  Nidwalden  and  Glarus  limit  pro- 
posals to  such  as  do  not  conflict  with  the  constitution 
of  the  Federation  or  the  Canton;  in  Outer-Rhoden  initi- 
atory legislation  must  be  proposed  by  a  body  of  voters 

59 


equal  in  number  to  elect  the  members  of  the  cantonal 
council. 

The  Initiative  and  Referendum  in  Switzerland  have 
not  compromised  the  rightful  exercise  of  authority  by 
legislative  bodies,  but  direct  legislation  has  served  to 
improve  both  the  acts  of  men  in  office  and  the  calibre 
of  officials  themselves. 

THE  SWISS  PEOPLE  AND  MILITARY  LEGISLATION. 

Much  of  Switzerland's  progress  in  military  prepared- 
ness is  due  to  the  hard  common  sense  of  the  Swiss  people 
in  exercising  their  powers  of  direct  legislation  on  that 
subject.  With  the  final  say  as  to  military  matters,  lying 
with  the  people  themselves,  they  have  chosen  the  sen- 
sible middle  course,  sufficiently  providing  for  their  de- 
fense without  veering  either  to  the  side  of  militarism 
on  the  one  hand,  or  that  of  pacifism  on  the  other. 

Is  it  too  much  to  expect  that  the  American  people 
when  finally,  directly  or  indirectly,  they  have  the  oppor- 
tunity of  shaping  this  republic's  preparedness  program, 
will  perform  that  duty  just  as  capably  and  as  wisely  and 
as  adequately  as  have  the  Swiss? 

Laws  such  as  only  a  few  of  the  more  progressive 
States  of  democratic  America  can  boast  and  which,  pro- 
posed even  in  some  section  of  our  own  country,  are 
immediately  frowned  upon  as  extremely  radical  and 
socialistic,  have  a  fixed  place  on  the  statute  books  of 
Switzerland,  where  the  theories  of  democracy  are  trans- 
lated into  a  definite,  active,  workable  program. 

PROGRESSIVE  LAWS  OF  THE  SWISS. 

Step  by  step,  often  with  the  direct  approval  of  the 
people  themselves,  as  expressed  in  Initiative  and  Refer- 

60 


endum,  the  law-builders  of  the  Swiss  Republic  have 
erected  a  structure  that  bids  fair  to  stand  any  test  to 
which  outright  and  direct  democracy  is  likely  ever  to 
be  subjected. 

More  than  that,  the  Swiss  Civil  Law  is  a  long  arm 
reaching  out  to  obtain  for  every  man,  woman  and  child, 
of  high  or  low  degree,  rich  or  poor,  the  exaction  from 
every  other  of  his  obligation;  and  it  stands,  as  well,  as 
a  firm  buttress,  protecting  the  weak  against  the  unjust 
encroachments  of  the  powerful.  It  is  evenly  balanced, 
not,  as  some  might  think,  framed  to  override  the  rights 
of  vested  interests;  but  always,  to  a  nicety,  reasonably 
subordinating  private  interests  to  public  welfare,  proper- 
ty to  man. 

For  the  Swiss  are  sober,  unemotional.  They  do  not 
permit  passion  or  prejudice  to  run  away  with  sound 
judgment.  In  laying  the  foundation  for  the  legal  struc- 
ture they  knew  must  stand  severe  testing,  they  remem- 
bered that  they  must  "build  their  house  on  the  rock.'' 

Because  it  is  so  apt  an  illustration  of  the  evenly 
balanced,  levelling  effect  of  the  principles  of  Swiss  law, 
the  ''Obligations-Recht/'  or  Law  of  Obligation,  stands  out 
as  a  model.  This  statute  was  adopted  in  January,  1883, 
and  is  most  sweeping  in  its  provisions,  governing  almost 
every  relationship  or  transaction  into  which  human  be- 
ings can  enter.  While  protecting  the  right  of  a  tenant 
to  the  reasonable  enjoyment  of  his  tenancy,  it  does  not 
neglect  that  of  the  landlord.  The  small  stockholder  in 
a  corporation  finds  his  investment  secure  from  mis- 
handling, but  the  directors  are  not  hampered  in  their 
legitimate  ambitions  to  extend  their  business.  The  rules 
governing  the  relations  of  master  and  servant,  employer, 
are  just  to  both;  each,  generally  speaking,  being  required 

61 


to  give  the  other  fourteen  days'  notice  of  termination  of 
the  employment. 

In  brief,  the  Law  of  Obligation  does  just  what  its 
title  signifies:  requires  every  person  to  live  up  to  his 
obligations,  and  provides  the  means  whereby  he  can  com- 
pel others  to  live  up  to  theirs.  That  can  hardly  be  con- 
sidered extremely  radical  except  to  such  whose  idea  of 
conservatism  is  to  be  let  alone  in  their  refusal  to  dis- 
charge their  duties  toward  their  fellows.  The  unfortu- 
nate, but  undeniable  fact  that  a  large  element  among 
our  men  of  big  moneyed  interests  are  endowed  with  just 
this  disregard  for  the  rights  of  the  weaker  citizen  and 
the  public  in  general  is  no  doubt  responsible  for  the  out- 
raged cry  of  "RadicaHsm !"  from  such  quarters  whenever 
is  heard  the  suggestion  for  the  enactment  of  advanced 
legislation  in  the  direction  of  enforcing  equal  rights  for 
all  of  us. 

CIVIL  RIGHTS  OF  WOMEN. 

In  the  marriage  relation,  too,  things  are  equalized  in 
Switzerland.  A  married  woman  has  full  civil  rights, 
and  can  enjoy  unhindered  all  the  benefits  from  her  sepa- 
rate property,  whether  real  or  personal.  The  Civil  Law 
proper,  adopted  in  191 2,  guarantees  these  equal  rights 
to  men  and  women,  and  it  does  many  things  that  regu- 
late the  family.  Every  person  is  compelled  by  law  to 
support  his  dependant  children,  grandchildren,  parents  or 
grandparents.  Promise  to  marry  is  not  deemed  a  bind- 
ing contract,  and  damages  for  breach  of  promise  cannot 
be  recovered. 

Heirs-at-law,  except  for  the  gravest  of  reasons,  can- 
not be  entirely  disinherited  under  the  Swiss  Civil  Law. 
A  child  can  be  cut  down  in  his  parent's  will  only  to 

62 


three-quarters  of  what  his  share  would  have  been  had 
there  been  no  will;  a  parent  can  be  cut  down  to  one- 
half,  and  a  brother  or  sister  to  one-fourth.  The  right 
of  dower  obtains,  and  that  fact,  considering  married 
women  have  full  civil  rights,  rather  gives  the  female 
of  the  species  in  Switzerland  something  the  better  of  it. 

INSURANCE  REGULATION. 

In  19 1  o  a  statute  was  passed,  stringently  regulating 
the  conduct  of  life,  fire  and  other  insurance  branches. 
The  government  has  laid  down  all-inclusive  rules  for 
provisions  of  insurance  policies,  so  that  it  is  well-nigh 
impossible  for  an  insured  person  to  be  euchered  out  of 
his  benefits  by  technicality. 

WORKMEN'S  INSURANCE. 

A  far-reaching  departure  was  taken  in  191 1  when 
the  Swiss  people  at  a  Referendum  adopted  an  employee's 
insurance  and  compensation  law  that  makes  the  State, 
the  employer  and  the  employee  partners  in  an  enterprise 
of  the  widest  scope  and  of  inestimable  good  to  the  great 
mass  of  the  people.  Of  the  money  paid  into  the  fund 
from  which  sick  or  disabled  workmen  cash  in  their  poli- 
cies, the  government  contributes  twenty  per  cent.,  and 
the  employers  and  employees  forty  per  cent.  each. 

An  employee  needs  not  to  be  injured  in  the  perform- 
ance of  his  work  to  gain  this  benefit,  as  is  the  case  under 
the  employer's  liability  laws  in  force  in  many  American 
States.  Ordinary  sickness  that  incapacitates  him  for 
labor  entitles  him  to  the  full  measure  of  payment.  For 
the  first  ninety  days  of  his  disability  he  receives  two- 
thirds  of  his  regular  wages,  and  one-half  for  the  balance 

63 


of  the  first  year.  If  the  disability  be  a  permanent  one 
he  receives  a  lump  sum,  sufficient  to  enable  him  to  em- 
bark in  some  business  that  will  sustain  him  and  his 
family. 

It  is  worthy  of  note  that  non-citizens  employed  in 
Swiss  establishments  (there  are  about  60,000  Italian 
subjects  working  in  the  country)  are  subject  to  the  rule 
and  enjoy  the  benefits  of  this  governmental  insurance 
system. 

PUBLIC  OWNERSHIP. 

Public  ownership  of  the  public  utilities  is  an  es- 
tablished principle,  and  one  that  has  worked  out  with 
eminent  success  in  Switzerland.  In  1897  the  people 
voted  to  take  over  the  Swiss  railroads.  The  majority 
in  favor  of  the  plan  was  overwhelming,  the  vote  being 
about  five  to  two. 

Nineteen  years  have  shown  the  venture  to  be  a  most 
profitable  one,  the  lines  affording  the  government  a 
sizeable  revenue.  Rolling  stock,  service  and  the  system 
in  general  have  been  vastly  improved  since  it  was  taken 
from  private  hands,  and  the  railroad  employees  are  better 
off  than  they  were  before. 

The  only  obstacle  the  Swiss  government  met  when 
it  proceeded  to  take  the  railroads,  was  that  concerning 
the  relations  of  the  company  operating  the  St.  Gothard 
line  with  the  German  and  Italian  governments.  This 
line  runs  from  Lucerne,  Switzerland,  to  Como,  Italy, 
and  forms  the  shortest  route  between  Germany  and 
Italy.  For  this  reason,  when  the  road  was  built,  it  was 
subsidized  to  the  extent  of  $12,000,000  by  Germany  and 
$6,000,000  by  Italy,  with  the  proviso  that,  after  three 
years,  one-half  of  all  yearly  profits  of  operation,  exceed- 

64 


ing  six  per  cent,  on  the  investment,  should  be  paid  to 
these  two  countries  in  pro  rata  shares. 

The  Swiss  balked  at  having  to  carry  out  this  agree- 
ment after  their  own  government  had  taken  hold  of  the 
road,  feeling  it  would  smack  too  much  of  paying  tribute 
to  foreign  countries.  After  much  discussion  the  matter 
was  settled  by  the  payment  of  a  lump  sum  to  the  cor- 
poration which  had  operated  the  road,  out  of  which  it 
made  its  own  settlement  with  Germany  and  Italy.  In 
addition,  German  and  Italian  freight,  it  was  agreed, 
should  always  get  the  advantage  of  the  minimum  rates 
charged  Swiss  shippers,  and  to  which  other  aliens  are 
not  entitled. 

All  telegraph  and  telephone  lines  in  Switzerland  are 
operated  by  the  government  and  are  under  the  direction 
of  the  Post-Office  Department.  No  effort  is  made  to 
realize  a  profit  from  this  venture,  but  no  money  is  lost 
by  it.  Should  there  be  at  any  time  a  surplus,  the  rates 
would  in  all  likelihood  be  reduced. 

All  alcohol  and  spirituous  liquors  are  manufactured 
directly  by  the  government  or  by  firms  acting  under 
government  concessions.  Every  cent  of  revenue  derived 
by  the  government  from  this  source  is  used  for  the  main- 
tenance of  the  public  schools  of  the  various  Cantons. 

CONSERVATION  OF  RESOURCES. 

Conservation  of  forests,  streams  and  other  natural 
resources  plays  an  important  part  in  Swiss  governmental 
functions.  The  forests  of  Switzerland  are  surpassed  by 
none  in  the  world,  not  even  those  of  Germany,  and  the 
Swiss  Republic  takes  good  care  that  so  valuable  an  asset 
shall  never  be  sacrificed  to  private  greed. 

Municipalities  own  their  forests,  there  are  Cantonal 

65 


forests  and  Federal  forest  reserves,  and  the  position 
of  forester  is  a  responsible  one.  The  correction  of 
streams  in  the  country  is  a  project  the  government 
fosters  and  encourages.  The  Federation  pays  to  the 
Cantons  subsidies  up  to  50  per  cent,  of  the  cost  of 
such  improvements,  the  subsidies  amounting  to  about 
$4,000,000  each  year. 

Swiss  municipalities  have  followed  the  example  of 
the  parent  government  in  the  matter  of  owning  and 
operating  public  utilities.  Street-car  lines,  water  plants, 
gas  and  electric  works  are  all  owned  by  the  cities,  towns 
and  villages  they  supply. 

Returning  for  the  nonce  to  the  Civil  Law,  we  find 
interesting  and  progressive  legislation  in  regard  to  at- 
tachment and  execution  of  debtors'  property  and  to 
bankruptcy.  Claims  for  labor  are  always  placed  in  the 
first  class  along  with  those  of  the  most  preferred  credit- 
ors. The  others  in  the  first  class  are  the  claims  of  a 
wife  to  one-half  of  the  separate  fortune  she  may  have 
brought  her  husband  at  their  marriage,  that  of  a  ward 
whose  guardian  has  gone  bankrupt  and  involved  the 
ward's  property,  and  claims  for  medical  attendance.  The 
next  preferred  class  comprises  claims  for  necessities  of 
life,  such  as  groceries  or  clothing.  There  are  three 
other  grades  of  preferred  claims.  This  law  dates  from 
1888. 

A  clause  having  a  hearing  on  the  military  prepared- 
ness policy  of  Switzerland  is  contained  in  the  revision 
of  the  Law  of  Obligation  made  in  1912.  It  provides 
that  no  employer  shall,  under  penalty,  discharge  or 
otherwise  put  at  a  disadvantage  any  employee  because 
the  latter  must  absent  himself  from  his  Employment  on 
account  of  military  duti^es. 

66 


Gene\a,  with  Rousseau's  Isle. 


DlSENTIS,     W.ITH     THE     BeNEDICTINE     AbBEY     AND     RAILROAD 

Station.    The  terminal  of  the  new  Furka  Railway, 
leading  from  Brig  via  Gletsch  to  Disentis. 


The  Haus  zum  Ritter,  dating  from  1570, 

a  late  Gothic  building  in  vSchaffhausen. 

Note  the  high  gable  and  richly  painted  fagade. 


ABSOLUTE  POLITICAL  EQUALITY. 

The  political  rights  of  the  Swiss  men  are  what  they 
should  be  in  a  democracy.  Every  male  citizen,  except 
convicts,  bankrupt  persons  (who  may  be  disqualified  for 
a  definite  period  by  the  courts),  and  insane  persons,  are 
entitled  to  vote.  Women  have  no  vote  in  Switzerland 
except  at  school  elections  in  some  Cantons.  Equal  po- 
litical rights  are  guaranteed  to  all  males,  no  property  or 
class  qualifications  being  in  the  least  recognized. 

The  right  to  worship  God  as  one's  conscience  dictates, 
an  ideal  identified  with  Switzerland  from  the  days  when 
harassed  religious  teachers  of  all  faiths  sought  an  Alpine 
refuge  from  their  persecutors,  holds  good  to  this  day 
to  a  marked  degree. 


RELIGIOUS  FREEDOM  UNIMPAIRED. 

In  practically  all  of  the  Cantons  both  Catholic  and 
Protestant  churches  are  the  beneficiaries  of  state  aid, 
the  Cantons  generally  paying  one-half  the  salary  of 
priest  and  minister  in  each  community. 

The  Protestant  population  of  Switzerland,  in  round 
numbers,  is  2,500,000;  the  Cathohc  is  1,500,000.  To  a 
certain  extent  the  religious  division  of  the  people  is 
reflected  in  their  alignment,  the  minority  party  being  the 
Catholic  Conservative,  while  the  Progressive  Democratic 
party  is  made  up  chiefly  of  Protestants.  The  latter, 
however,  has  numerous  Catholics  in  its  ranks  and  some 
of  its  greatest  leaders  have  been  of  that  faith. 

Since  the  adoption  of  the  1848  Constitution  the  Pro- 
gressive Democratic  party  has  been  continually  in  power, 
and  to  iU  fff4^t  W'f^^t  P^  placed  the  passage  of  fhe  bulk 

67 


of  the  liberal,  democratizing  legislation  now  on  the 
statute  books. 

In  a  general,  quite  haphazard  fashion  the  foregoing 
few  pages  point  out  some  of  the  distinguishing  features 
of  a  wonderful  fabric  of  law  that  has  been  woven  with 
as  great  care  and  looking  to  the  ultimate  result  as  the 
expert  weavers  of  Zurich  exercise  in  the  manufacture 
of  their  far-famed  silks. 

It  is  all  to  purpose  that  the  reader  should  be  given 
a  glimpse  at  the  Swiss  legal  system  and  its  workings. 
A  people's  character  can  be  read  through  the  laws  they 
make.  A  nation  that  has  the  sober,  good  sense,  the  sub- 
jection to  discipline,  to  enact  measures  that  will  give  to 
each  his  equal  right;  a  people,  clothed  with  the  power  to 
directly  govern  themselves  to  the  minutest  detail  of 
government,  who  forego  the  opportunity  to  wield  that 
power  to  oppress  interests  which  would  almost  surely 
oppress  them  were  democracy  in  Switzerland  merely  a 
name  instead  of  a  fact;  a  citizenry  that  has  the  sense  of 
justice  to  exact  from  each  his  proper  contribution  to  the 
public  weal,  cannot  be  far  wrong  in  any  other  direction 
in  which  it  extends  its  activities. 

The  Swiss,  in  their  good  judgment,  have  created  a 
military  system  that  rivals  comparison,  that  has  served 
to  save  them  from  the  occurrence  of  the  very  contingen- 
cies for  which  it  was  meant  to  provide.  Who  can  doubt 
that  the  means  chosen  by  the  Swiss  in  their  enactment 
of  law  to  make  democracy  a  reality  might  profitably  be 
taken  model  of  by  us  in  America? 

Why  question,  then,  the  staring  truth  of  the  assertion 
that  America  must  likewise  establish  such  a  military 
system,  if  even  the  measure  of  democracy  we  now  enjoy 
is  to  be  preserved  for  the  future  generations? 

68 


CHAPTER  I. 

Switzerland  first  to  adopt  obligatory  service  in  modern  times. — 
Military  articles  of  Constitution  of  1848. — Additional  changes 
and  improvements  up  to  1895. — Day  of  the  Swiss  pacifists. — 
Gertsch  and  Wille. — Temporary  triumph  of  "anti-prepared- 
ness."— The  inevitable  reaction :  Return  of  reason  in  1907. — 
Switzerland  today  the  answer  to  American  pacifists. 

The  Federal  Constitution  adopted  in  1848  provided: 
"Every  Swiss  is  bound  to  military  service" ;  thus  making 
Switzerland  the  first  nation  in  modern  times  to  introduce 
compulsory  service. 

Prompt  measures  were  taken  for  national  defense 
after  the  adoption  of  the  1848  constitution.  Through 
legislation  in  1850,  185 1  and  1853  the  number  of  first 
line  troops  was  increased  to  69,569  and  a  reserve  of 
34,785  was  created,  giving  Switzerland  an  army  of 
104,354.  By  1866  the  army  had  been  increased  to 
199,054.  Development  of  military  training  and  instruc- 
tion progressed  rapidly,  and  fortifications  were  erected 
in  Bellinzona  near  the  Italian  border,  and  in  Luziensteig 
on  the  Austrian  frontier. 

The  Federal  Government  took  over  the  business  of 
instructing  the  engineer  corps,  artillery  and  cavalry,  and 
the  training  of  the  instructors  of  infantry  and  the  higher 
officers,  while  the  instruction  itself  of  the  infantry  was 
left  to  the  various  Cantons. 

By  still  another  revision  of  the  constitution  in  1874, 
military  administration  was  further  centralized.  The 
army  of  the  Republic  was  made  to  consist  of  the  con- 
tingents from  the  Cantons.    The  enrollment  of  the  con- 

69 

r 


tingents,  their  care,  and  the  appointment  and  promotion 
of  the  officers  remained  with  the  Cantons  but  was  con- 
trolled by  general  rules  laid  down  by  the  Federal  Gov- 
ernment. 

The  latter,  however,  took  over  all  instruction,  training 
and  arming,  and  reserved  the  right  to  enact  military 
legislation.  The  Cantons  were  empowered  to  appoint 
and  promote  officers  up  to  the  grade  of  major,  but  only 
such  as  had  been  awarded  Federal  certificates  of  ability. 

Up  till  1895  other  changes  in  military  administration 
took  place,  but  there  was  yet  room  for  improvement. 
The  officers'  societies  (membership  is  compulsory  for 
every  officer),  especially  the  younger  officers,  worked 
hard  to  bring  about  another  revision  of  the  military 
clause  of  the  constitution,  having  a  complete  centrali- 
zation in  view. 

But  vast  expenditure  for  the  creation  of  the  Land- 
sturm  in  1886,  the  fortifications  around  the  St.  Gotthard 
and  around  St.  Maurice  (these  two  fortifications  alone 
costing  over  $7,000,000),  the  rearming  of  the  infantry 
(costing  over  $9,000,000)  and  demands  of  some  over- 
zealous  instructors,  had  provoked  widespread  dissatis- 
faction through  sober  Switzerland.  These  days  gave 
birth  to  "anti-preparedness.''  Several  influential  news- 
papers nourished  the  discontent,  attacking  and  seeking 
to  discredit  the  officers,  charging  them  with  the  ambition 
to  "Prussianize"  the  army. 

A  period  of  over  twenty  years  of  peace  among  the 
great  European  powers,  the  propaganda  of  the  dreamers 
of  "world  peace,"  agitation  of  foreign-born  citizens  with 
socialistic  tendencies,  who  pointed  to  the  three  years 
military  service  of  the  neighboring  States  as  a  dire 
m^n^^^  §urel^  tp  materialize  in  Switzerland,   with  its 

79 


accompaniment  of  a  tremendous  national  debt,  should 
the  Swiss  people  determine  to  hold  pace  in  military 
efficiency  with  neighboring  nations,  were  the  obstacles 
to  an  effective  preparedness  of  Switzerland  in  the  nine- 
ties of  the  last  century. 

"We  do  not  need  any  additional  preparation,''  the 
pacifists  of  Switzerland  cried  in  those  days.  Think  of 
the  money  modem  rifles,  modern  guns,  modern  fortifi- 
cations and  longer  courses  of  training  would  cost !  Why 
should  we  go  to  all  these  expenses  when  there  will  never 
be  another  European  War?'' 

Such  was  the  gospel  preached  from  the  Alps  to  the 
Rhine,  from  the  Jura  Hills  to  the  Tyrolean  Mountains; 
and  the  Swiss  peasants  and  workingmen  lent  a  more 
attentive  ear  to  such  arguments  than  to  the  sound  rea- 
soning of  the  men  who  could  not  yet  see  the  millenium 
on  the  threshold  of  Europe  and  who  urged  their  people 
to  prepare.  Everything  savoring  of  the  military  insti- 
tutions became  for  the  time  decidedly  unpopular.  The 
cry  for  demobilization  was  heard  everywhere. 

The  Federal  legislature  was  in  a  quandary,  as  the 
referendum  was  sure  to  be  invoked  on  any  appropriation 
or  military  legislation,  and  its  defeat  when  brought  to 
a  popular  vote  nobody  could  doubt.  Thus  by  a  general 
disrespect  for  Preparedness  an  undermining  of  discipline 
was  brought  about  that  saddened  every  true  Swiss  soldier. 

Some  able  officers  sought  to  stem  the  tide  of  public 
opinion  that  seemed  running  against  them,  but  with  little 
success. 

The  popular  chord  was  tuned  for  the  time  being  to 
"anti-preparedness."  A  captain  of  the  General  staff, 
Fritz  Gertsch,  a  dashing  and  intelligent  officer,  under- 
took to  enlighten  the  people  on  the  necessity  of  good 

71 


discipline  for  the  efficiency  of  any  army.  He  published 
a  pamphlet  entitled :  "Arm  or  Disarm/'  which,  in  logical 
language  said: 

"There  is  only  one  Swiss  soldier,  only  one  Swiss 
army  possible,  and  that  is  a  soldier  whose  obedience  is 
unconditional  and  an  army  with  the  strictest  discipline 
always  enforced." 

In  pointed  words  he  attacked  the  newspapers  that 
had  incited  a  disregard  of  discipline  among  the  soldiers. 

"The  first  thing  I  would  do  in  case  of  war  between 
the  Republic  and  another  nation,''  he  wrote,  "would  be 
to  confiscate  every  newspaper,  and  thereby  prevent  in- 
formation of  our  condition  or  movements  from  reaching 
the  enemy." 

Gertsch's  pamphlet  was  a  sensation.  Not  only  those 
newspapers  which  felt  that  "the  shoe  would  fit"  them, 
but  nearly  all  of  them  took  a  fling  at  the  fearless  captain, 
and  so  to  heart  did  he  take  this  criticism  that  he  handed 
in  his  resignation. 

Colonel  Ulrich  Wille,  then  chief  of  cavalry,  and  a 
great  disciplinarian,  had  supported  Gertsch  whole  heart- 
edly,  and  he  too  was  forced  into  seclusion.  The  people 
had  to  have  their  victims. 

On  November  3,  1895,  the  proposed  revision  of  the 
military  constitution  was  defeated  by  a  vote  of  270,000 
to  200,000.  But  such  a  setback  could  not  permanently 
discourage  the  real  leaders  of  "the  people  in  arms."  In 
a  short  time  a  great  change  of  sentiment  took  place, 
and  Wille  and  Gertsch  "came  back."  Wille  was  desig- 
nated at  the  time  of  the  1914  mobilization,  the  General 
of  the  Swiss  Army,  and  Gertsch  is  commander  of  a 
brigade. 

72 


The  highest  rank  in  the  Swiss  Army,  when  on  peace 
footing,  is  that  of  colonel.  In  time  of  mobilization 
the  Federal  Assembly  elects  a  general  as  the  chief  of 
the  entire  army.  But  only  three  Swiss  have  ever  car- 
ried this  honor.  They  were  Henry  Dufour  in  1857, 
when  Switzerland  mobilized  against  Prussia;  Hans 
Herzog  in  1870,  at  the  Franco-Prussian  War;  and  now 
Ulrich  Wille.  Within  twelve  years  from  the  defeat  of 
the  proposed  revision  of  the  military  article  a  great 
change  in  sentiment  took  place.  The  certainty  was 
brought  home  to  the  Swiss  people  that  only  by  a  strong 
and  efficient  army  could  the  independence  of  the  Re- 
public be  maintained.  November  5,  1907,  was  a  red 
letter  day  for  the  Alpine  citizenry.  By  an  immense 
majority  the  article  of  the  constitution  was  amended  as 
the  officers  of  the  army  had  desired. 

The  American  people  are  not  behind  the  Swiss  in 
the  matter  of  hard,  common  sense.  That  American 
pacifists  may  for  a  time  mislead  a  considerable  number 
of  their  fellow  citizens  is  to  be  expected,  just  as  the 
anti-preparedness  advocates  of  1895  gained  a  temporary 
triumph  in  Switzerland.  We  in  America  have  one  ad- 
vantage in  that  we  have  the  example  of  Switzerland  to 
hold  up  as  refutation  of  the  argument  of  the  pacifists. 

When  I  had  the  privilege  of  testifying  before  the 
Ways  and  Means  Committees  of  the  New  York  Senate 
and  Assembly  in  favor  of  the  Welsh-Slater  physical  in- 
struction and  military  training  bills,  and  again  when 
Governor  Whitman,  May  15th,  before  signing  the  bills, 
conducted  a  hearing,  I  repeatedly  heard  opponents  of 
the  measures  offer  these  objections: 

First — That  any  formidable  preparedness  is  repug- 
nant to  the  ideals  of  a  republic; 

7Z 


Second — Military  training  is  harmful  to  good  citi- 
zenship ; 

Third — The  greater  the  preparedness  of  a  nation, 
the  more  likely  she  will  be  to  engage  in  war. 

I  answered  all  three  objections,  as  I  answer  now,  in 
one  word:  Switzerland. 

No  purer  type  of  Republican  ideals,  no  more  fixed 
and  devoted  adherence  to  those  ideals,  can  be  found  in 
all  the  world  than  in  Switzerland.  Nor  are  the  demo- 
cratic principles  of  the  Swiss  people  the  mushroom 
growth  of  any  sudden  revolution ;  they  have  upheld  and 
maintained  their  ideals  through  six  centuries  and,  far 
from  being  repugnant  to  them,  the  military  establish- 
ment of  the  Swiss  has  been  the  one  means  by  which 
those  ideals  have  been  able  to  triumph  over  and  with- 
stand the  assaults  of  tyrants  and  oppressors  who  have 
sought  to  crush  democracy. 

Again,  the  Swiss  citizen  is  the  living  refutation  of 
the  charge  that  military  training  hurts  good  citizenship. 
There  is  no  exaggeration  in  the  statement  that  nowhere 
on  earth  are  the  two  qualities  of  a  highly  efficient  sol- 
dier and  public-spirited  citizen  so  united  and  blended 
as  they  are  in  your  Swiss.  Trained  from  youth,  it  is 
doubtful  if,  man  for  man,  he  has  a  peer  in  any  army 
of  Europe.  Yet  no  one,  claiming  any  knowledge  of 
Swiss  life  and  political  conditions,  fails  to  agree  that 
the  Swiss  is  a  model  of  good  citizenship,  and  that  the 
civil  government  of  the  little  republic  is  on  a  par  with 
its  army  in  efficiency. 

It  is  almost  wasting  time  replying  to  the  argument 
that  adequate  preparedness  brings  the  danger  of  war. 
But  here,  once  more,  the  proof  of  its  falsity  is  furnished 
by, Switzerland.    Hemmed  in  among  the  four  great  bel- 

74 


ligerents — Germany,  Austria,  France  and  Italy — offering 
a  convenient  path  by  which  either  side  could  move  to 
strike  the  other,  Switzerland  is  at  peace  today,  her 
neutrality  respected  and  her  territory  unviolated,  for 
no  other  reason  than,  that  within  48  hours  after  war 
was  declared  she  had  her  splendid  army  of  425,000 
mobilized  on  her  four  borders,  serving  notice  on  all  the 
powers  that  she  would  not  submit  to  the  fate  that  sub- 
sequently overtook  Belgium,  defenseless  Luxembourg 
and  helpless  Greece. 

Switzerland  is  neutral,  not  by  the  orders  of  the  big 
powers  of  Europe,  but  by  her  own  voluntary  decision; 
nor  could  she  today  be  compelled  to  become  unneutral, 
as  in  1798  when  it  pleased  Napoleon  to  make  her  his 
ally  in  war. 

To  this  policy  of  neutrality  the  Alpine  republic  is 
going  to  adhere,  but  it  should  not  be  forgotten  that  in 
placing  her  powerful  military  forces  to  guard  the  bor- 
ders, the  ultimate  duty  is  not  merely  the  protection  of 
her  neutrality,  but  the  preservation  of  her  liberty  and 
independence  at  all  hazards  and  at  any  cost. 

Picture,  if  you  can,  the  perils  to  which  little  Switzer- 
land would  have  been  subjected  at  the  beginning  of  the 
world  war  in  191 4,  had  her  policy  been  dictated  by  such 
gentry  as  those  Americans  who  howl  dismally  against 
adequate  preparedness  in  the  United  States!  Would 
the  military  necessity  that  holds  treaties  to  be  but  "scraps 
of  paper'*  have  hesitated  to  invade  Switzerland  if  Swit- 
zerland had  been  weak?  Belgium  bled  and  is  bleeding 
because  she  was  weak. 

Our  amiable  pacifists  might  well  visualize  the  fate 
that  wQuld  have  overtaken  Switzerland,  had  either  Ger- 
many  or   France   deemed   it   safe   to  attack  the   other 

75 


through  Swiss  territory.  The  only  reason  Switzerland 
has  not  been  trampled  upon  is  that  she  is  able  to  resist 
invasion.  No  other  consideration  but  that  of  expedi- 
ency seems  to  govern  the  conduct  of  nations  locked  in 
a  death  struggle. 

Thorough  preparedness  in  Switzerland  has  made  for 
peace  in  Switzerland,  demonstrating  the  absurdity  of  paci- 
fists claims  that  preparedness  for  war  is  an  invitation 
to  war.  Does  a  quarrelsome  man,  looking  for  fight,  pick 
out  a  heavy  weight  pugilist  to  try  conclusions  with  ?  The 
natural  laws  are  as  immutable  in  their  application  to 
nations  as  to  individuals.  Most  nations  have  shown 
themselves  to  be  pretty  much  of  the  bully  type,  and 
the  bully  preys  on  the  weak  and  defenseless  every  time. 

If  tiny  Switzerland  can  ward  off  aggression  by  mili- 
tary preparedness,  how  comparatively  simple  would  it 
be  for  great  America  to  do  the  same!  The  danger  is 
imminent,  for  America  stands  in  the  way  of  more  than 
one  nation's  ambition  for  power  and  aggrandizement. 
The  peril  impends,  and  Switzerland  proffers  the  remedy. 
A  system  that  has  worked  so  well  in  democratic  Swit- 
zerland, if  modified  to  fit  American  needs  and  conditions, 
cannot  fail  in  the  United  States. 


7(^ 


CHAPTER  II. 

Details  of  the  1907  Military  Organization. — Divisions  based  on 
languages  spoken. — First  Line,  Landwehr  and  Landsturm. — 
Mental  and  physical  tests  at  the  age  of  nineteen. — Rivalry 
among  Cantons  for  showing  in  tests. — Recruiting  schools. — 
Length  of  service  in  school  and  with  colors. 

The  thorough  and  scientific  way  in  which  Switzer- 
land's military  authorities  set  out  to  build  up  and  equip 
her  army  after  the  people,  through  the  Constitutional 
amendment  of  1907,  had  given  them  free  rein  to  put 
the  Republic  on  a  footing  of  adequate  preparedness  is 
at  once  interesting  in  its  side-lights  on  the  Swiss  charac- 
teristic of  doing  all  things  well,  and  instructive  to  our 
own  people  as  they  contemplate  strengthening  the  de- 
fenses of  America. 

Here  are  some  of  the  salient  features  of  the  organi- 
zation as  it  exists  today: 

It  provides  for  six  divisions  of  the  First  Line.  The 
organization  of  division  takes  cognizance  of  the  language 
spoken  in  the  Cantons. 

The  First  Division  is  French  speaking,  and  derives 
its  contingents  from  the  Cantons  of  Geneve,  Valais,  and 
Vaud;  the  Second  Division  is  French  speaking  from 
Neuchatel,  Fribourg,  and  Jura  Bernois.  The  Third, 
Fourth  and  Fifth  recruit  their  men  from  the  German 
speaking  Cantons  of  Bern,  Lucerne,  Solothurn,  Basel, 
Aargau,  St.  Gallen,  Zurich  and  Schauffhausen.  The 
Sixth  division,  with  the  Italian  language  as  well  as  the 
German,   embrace    men    from   the   Cantons    of   Ticino, 


Graubiinden,  and  parts  of  St.  Gallen  and  Appenzell.  As 
each  division  contains  three  brigades,  the  federation  has 
i8  infantry  brigades  of  the  First  Line.  In  four  of  the 
divisions  the  third  brigade  is  a  mountain  brigade  of 
infantry.  Each  regiment  of  infantry  has  attached  to 
it  one  company  with  12  machine  guns. 
The  organization  provides   for:  ' 

First  Line. 

Infantry:  36  regiments,  each  regiment  containing  3  bat- 
taHons;  a  battalion,  25  officers  and  881  soldiers. 
Four  companies  of  5  officers  and  209  soldiers 
each  form  a  battalion. 

Artillery:  Seventy-two  batteries  of  field  artillery  as- 
sembled in  12  regiments.     Each  battery  has  4  or 

5  officers,  I  veterinary,  21  non-commissioned  of- 
ficers, 118  men,  122  horses  and  4  pieces.  There 
are  six  batteries  of  howitzers  for  each  division. 
Twelve  companies  (4  guns  each)  of  foot  artillery 
and  24  batteries  of  mountain  artillery  complete 
the  First  Line  artillery. 

Cavalry:  Eight  regiments  of  3  squadrons  each,  forming 
4  brigades;  also  12  companies  of  guides,  forming 

6  groups.  Each  squadron  numbers  4  officers,  17 
non-commissioned  officers,  107  troopers,  123  sad- 
dle-horses and  8  draft-horses. 

Engineers:   Twenty- four  companies  of  sappers. 

Signal  corps:    Six. 

Bridge  Trains:  Six. 

Telegraph  Companies:    Six. 

Medical  Corps:    Each   division:    i    division  hospital,   5 

companies   sanitary  troops,    i   mountain  hospital, 

2  sanitary  companies. 

78 


Ammunition  Trains:  Each  division:  2  companies  ar- 
tillery ammunition,  i  company  infantry  ammuni- 
tion, 2  pack  trains. 

Second  Line  or  Landwehr. 

Infantry:  212  companies  of  170  men  each  assembled  in 
56  battalions  which  form  16  regiments,  2  regi- 
ments to  a  brigade. 

Artillery:  Forty-three  companies  and  8  battalions  of 
mountain  artillery. 

Cavalry:    Twenty-four  squadrons. 

Third  Line  or  Landsturm. 

Infantry:    Eighty-three  battalions. 

Artillery :  Foot  and  fortification  artillery :  39  companies 

Cavalry:  Thirteen  companies. 

The  approximate  number  of  men  who  can  be  mobil- 
ized on  the  firing  line  is: 

First  Line  (men  up  to  their  32nd  year)  225,000 
Landwehr  (men  up  to  their  40th  year)  110,000 
Landsturm  (men  up  to  their  48th  year)       80,000 

4x5,000 

Besides  this  number  there  is  a  reserve  force  of 
250,000  Landsturm  men,  90%  of  whom  are  good  shots 
if  nothing  more. 

Every  male  Swiss  at  his  nineteenth  year  must  sub- 
mit to  a  mental  and  physical  examination.  The  mental 
test  includes  reading,  arithmetic,  geography,  history  and 
composition. 

For  physical  examination  he  performs  various  gym- 
nastic exercises  on  apparatus.  The  minimum  height  is 
^  feet,   ij^  inches    (United  States  minimum  is  5   feet 

79 


2  inches)  ;  chest  measurement,  half  of  height,  but  not 
less  than  31J4  inches. 

There  is  a  great  rivalry  among  the  Cantons  to  have 
the  highest  percentage  in  the  recruiting  examinations,  as 
they  are  published  throughout  Switzerland.  Some  Can- 
tons compel  the  youths  from  17  to  19  to  go  to  night 
school  for  64  hours  during  the  winter,  to  prepare  for 
the  examination. 

When  accepted,  in  his  20th  year  the  infantry  recruit 
enters  the  recruiting  school  of  his  territorial  division, 
or  if  he  is  to  become  an  artilleryman  or  cavalryman  he 
joins  his  respective  school,  of  which  there  are  two  for 
each  branch. 

The  length  of  time  devoted  to  the  first  year's  train- 
ing of  the  recruit  is  as  follows,  day  of  entrance  and  day 
of  discharge  included: 

Days 
Sanitary  troops,  supply  trains,  commissary..     62 

Infantry  and  Engineers 67 

Artillery  and  garrison  troops jy 

Cavalry 92 

At  the  time  the  recruit  reports  for  his  service  he  is 
given  a  complete  equipment  and  a  regulation  rifle,  all 
of  which  he  takes  home  after  finishing  the  course.  For 
yearly  inspection  and  active  duty  he  must  turn  out  with 
his  equipment  spick  and  span.  For  neglecting  any  detail 
at  inspection  or  losing  articles  he  is  punished. 

The  recruiting  school  course  is  hard  work,  as  each 
day  means  eight  strenuous  hours,  with  night  work  such 
as  firing,  intrenching  and  maneuvers,  probably  twice  a 
week. 

Completion  of  the  school  course  promotes  the  recruit 
to  a  full-fledged  soldier,  assigned  to  a  battalion  in  his 

80 


home  district  which  is  a  unit  of  the  division  of  which 
his  Canton  is  a  territorial  part.  As  a  member  of  a 
battaHon,  he  serves  each  year  thirteen  days  until  he  is 
28.  He  belongs  to  the  First  Line  for  4  years  longer, 
until  he  is  32,  but  in  those  4  years  he  is  not  bound  to 
do  any  yearly  service. 

From  32  to  40  he  belongs  to  the  Second  Line,  or 
Landwehr.  In  this  capacity  he  serves  for  one  week 
every  second  year.  For  8  years,  until  he  is  48,  he  serves 
in  the  Landsturm,  and  is  called  to  the  colors  twice  for 
a  period  of  one  week.  In  addition,  every  Landwehr 
and  Landsturm  soldier  presents  himself  for  annual  in- 
spection, at  which  time  he  must  account  for  the  care  of 
his  uniform  and  arms. 

Time  of  instruction  for  a  Swiss  infantry  private: 

Days 

Recruiting  School,  at  his  20th  year 67 

First  Line,  up  to  his  32nd  year: 

7  repetition  courses  at  13  days  each 91 

Landwehr,  up  to  his  40th  year: 

4  courses  of  7  days  each 28 

Landsturm,  up  to  his  48th  year : 

2  courses  of  7  days  each 14 

200 
The  Landsturm  has  two  classes,  the  armed  and  un- 
armed.    The  armed  class  is  organized  into  companies, 
troops  and  regiments.     The  unarmed  class  has  special 
duties  in  war  time. 

When  the  youth  of  19  passes  the  mental  and  physical 
examination  for  admission  into  the  service  he  is  given 
a  page  in  the  "Service  ledger"  of  his  recruiting  district. 
Each  district  has  a  Federal  Military  Bureau  directed 
by  Federal   officers.     The  service   ledger   contains   the 

81 


pedigree  of  the  man,  his  rating  and  mental  tests,  the 
branch  of  arms  for  which  he  was  selected  and  the  unit 
to  which  he  belongs.  All  promotions  as  well  as  details 
of  his  conduct  every  time  he  did  service,  are  entered  in 
the  ledger.  If  he  leaves  his  recruiting  district  to  make 
his  home  in  another,  he  is  compelled  to  inform  the  dis- 
trict chiefs  of  the  old  and  new  district  within  three  days 
and  give  his  new  address.  A  duplicate  of  all  this  data 
in  the  form  of  a  "service  book''  (Dienstbiichlein)  is 
given  to  each  man. 

This  book  is  the  "report  card''  of  every  Swiss  citizen. 
It  is  kept  strictly  up-to-date,  and  is  a  "passport,"  for 
his   military  life. 

So  there,  briefly  outlined,  is  the  plan  under  which 
the  finest  military  organization  in  the  world  works. 
Every  man  has  his  place,  every  able-bodied  Swiss  citizen 
does  his  part  in  assuring  the  safety  of  his  country,  and 
does  it  gladly  and  with  pride  in  the  doing. 

Herbert  Spencer  said  "organization  is  the  ability  to 
apply  all  available  knowledge  and  all  available  energy 
at  a  given  time  and  a  given  place  to  the  accomplish- 
ment of  a  particular  object."  The  Swiss  in  their  military 
establishment  have  applied  that  definition  with  wonder- 
ful results.  There  is  no  waste,  no  confusion,  no  fatal 
hesitation  about  doing  the  right  thing  in  the  right  way 
at  the  right  time.  Forsooth,  there  be  none  accompanying 
such  a  task  as  mobilizing  one-tenth  of  a  nation  of  peace- 
ful workingmen  and  agriculturalists  into  a  splendid 
fighting  machine  inside  of  48  hours. 

It  bears  the  lesson  of  value  of  preparedness  and  of 
the  proper  system  upon  which  to  base  preparedness. 
Can  America  learn  that  lesson?  How  could  she  be  so 
blind  ^s  tP  fail  to  learn  it? 

83 


CHAPTER  III. 

Marksmanship  in  Switzerland. — Rifle  shooting  a  national  sport. — 
All  undergo  yearly  tests. — Triennial  "Schiitzenfeste." — Swiss 
take  first  honors  in  17  out  of  18  international  shoots. — Scores 
of  all  international  shoots. — Camp  Perry. — Lesson  in  thor- 
oughness for  Americans. — Training  of  officers. — Chance  for 
any  citizen  to  become  an  officer. — Apportionment  of  cost 
between  Federal  government  and  Cantons. — Tax  of  exemp- 
tion.— Swiss  system  economical  as  well  as  efficient. — Shows 
what  America  might  accomplis^h  at  slight  cost. — Public  funds 
carefully  expended  in  Switzerland. — Tables  of  pay  in  United 
States  and  Swiss  Army. 

Swiss  proficiency  in  marksmanship,  the  thorough 
training  Swiss  army  officers  receive  at  a  minimum  cost 
of  time,  and  the  remarkable  economy  that  characterizes 
the  maintenance  of  so  splendid  a  military  establishment 
all  contain  vital  lessons  that  America  may  well  heed  as 
she  stands  on  the  threshold,  about  to  enter  into  an  era 
of  preparedness. 

In  order  to  be  a  crack  marksman  be  it  with  the 
crossbow  of  Wilhelm  Tell  or  the  modern  7  mm.  army 
rifle,  the  Swiss  for  six  centuries,  in  early  boyhood  and 
until  old  age,  has  practiced  shooting. 

Rifle  practice  is  the  sport  of  old  and  young,  even 
in  the  smallest  village.  Every  community  is  compelled 
by  the  Federal  government  to  build  and  maintain  a  rifle 
range  in  the  open  field. 

Every  Swiss  soldier  in  civil  life  must  belong  to  a 
rifle  club,  under  the  auspices  of  which  he  has  to  undergo 

83 


a  yearly  shooting  test,  consisting  of  6x6,  or  36  shots, 
with  a  minimum  of  75  per  cent,  hits  and  60  per  cent, 
points,  for  each  exercise. 

Target  "A"  has  an  inner  black  circle  of  16  inches 
diameter,  counting  four  points,  enclosed  by  a  larger 
circle  of  24  inches,  counting  three  points,  a  third  circle 
of  40  inches,  counting  two  points,  and  an  outer  circle 
of  60  inches,  counting  one  point. 

Target  "B"  represents  the  head  and  chest  of  a  soldier 
and  is  16  inches  high.  Hits  in  the  head  or  neck  count 
two  points,  in  all  other  parts  of  the  effigy,  one  point. 
The  distances  used  for  target  "B"  are  300  meters  (333 
yards)  for  position  I  (kneeling),  and  II  (prone);  and 
200  meters  (222  yards)  for  position  III  (prone  with 
supported  rifle). 

The  following  table  makes  clear  the  tests  each  Swiss 
must  undergo  yearly: 


Distance 

Exercise 

Meters 

Yds. 

Position            1 

rarg 

I 

300 

333 

prone 

A 

II 

300 

333 

kneeling 

A 

III 

200 

222 

standing 

A 

IV 

300 

333 

kneeling 

B 

V 

300 

333 

prone 

B 

VI 

200 

222 

prone  (with  sup- 
ported barrel) 

B 

The  last  day  in  each  year  for  filing  the  returns  of 
this  annual  test  is  July  15.  To  insure  a  good  score 
one   can  practice  on  the  shooting  range  whenever  he 

84 


chooses  from  early  spring  until  such  time  as  he  feels 
himself  prepared  to  take  the  compulsory  test. 

The  Federal  government  refunds  the  cost  of  the 
ammunition  used  to  all  those  who  pass,  and  pays  to 
each  rifle  club  two  francs  (39  cents)  for  each  man 
coming  up  to  the  required  mark. 

Woe  to  the  chap  that  fails  in  this  rigid  test!  He  is 
in  disgrace  among  his  companions,  and  in  November  or 
December  he  must  again  don  his  uniform,  shoulder  his 
rifle,  go  to  the  nearest  recruiting  place,  and  practice 
shooting  under  the  eyes  of  special  instructors  until  he 
passes  the  required  mark  for  36  shots. 

There  are  in  Switzerland  at  the  present  time  4,000 
rifle  clubs  with  an  aggregate  membership  of  400,000 
men.  Two  million  francs  is  the  cost  to  the  government 
of  the  approximate  number  of  shots  fired  in  target 
practice  every  year. 

This  persistent  rifle  practice  makes  every  Swiss  sol- 
dier a  crack  shot,  and  is  largely  responsible  for  the  high 
efficiency  of  the  army.  That  proficiency  in  shooting 
grows  from  year  to  year  is  evident  from  the  following 
facts : 

Federal  "Schiitzenfeste"  are  held  every  three  years, 
the  highest  award  being  the  title  of  "Meisterschiitze," 
given  to  those  who  make  seventy-five  hits  out  of  one 
hundred  shots  within  a  circle  of  20  centimeters  (eight 
inches),  in  kneeling  position,  at  a  distance  of  300  meters 
(330  yards). 

In  1900,  at  Lucerne,  four  "Meisterschiitzen"  were 
proclaimed.  In  1904  at  St.  Gall,  thirteen.  In  1907  at 
Zurich,  twenty-seven.  In  1910  at  Bern,  one  hundred 
and  twenty-eight. 


Undoubtedly  there  are  hundreds,  if  not  thousands, 
of  Swiss  who  could  make  this  mark,  but  every  Swiss 
has  not  the  money  to  spend  or  the  time  to  lose  to  take 
part  in  a  Federal  Schiitzenfest. 

The  widespread  interest  in  these  Schiitzenfeste  can 
be  imagined  from  the  fact  that  at  Bern,  in  1910,  three 
hundred  gallery  stands  were  in  use.  At  every  stand 
there  were  from  thirty  to  forty  men  waiting  their  turn, 
some  of  them  for  ten  or  twelve  hours.  The  same  year 
the  Rheinische  Schiitzenfest  took  place  at  Karlsruhe, 
Germany,  for  a  district  five  times  the  size  of  all  Switzer- 
land, and  there  only  fifty  stands  were  in  use,  and  rarely 
more  than  three  men  at  a  time  waiting  for  their  turn 
to  shoot. 

During  the  year  1910,  there  were  a  total  of  44,000,000 
shots  fired  in  rifle  practice  in  Switzerland,  with  its 
4,000,000  population. 

In  Germany  (population  67,000,000)  there  were  only 
30,000,000  practice  shots  fired  that  year,  and  in  France 
(population  40,000,000)  but  20,000,000  shots. 

It  will  be  remembered  that  at  the  international  shoot 
in  Camp  Perry,  Ohio,  September,  1913,  Switzerland's 
team  came  out  ahead  of  those  of  all  other  competing 
nations.     The  official  returns  were: 


Switzerland    4^959 

France    4j767 

United  States    4,578 

Sweden     4>S77 

Peru    3,892 

Canada   3>76o 

86 


xf 


Up  to  this  year  Switzerland  had  carried  first  honors 
in  seventeen  out  of  eighteen  international  shoots. 

Here  is  Switzerland's  Score  of  the  International 
Shoots : 

Year  Place  Points 

1897  Lyons    2,310 

1898  *  Turin     2,310 

1899  The  Hague    4,528 

1900  Paris   4>399 

1901  Lucerne    4,567 

1902  Rome    4,484 

1903  Buenos  Ayres 4,598 

1904  Lyons    4,542 

1905  Brussels    4,737 

1906  Milan 4,7i6 

1907  Zurich 4,848 

1908  Vienna 4,617 

1909  Hamburg    4,840 

1910  The  Hague    4,9^8 

191 1  Rome    5,014 

1912  Biarritz     5,172 

1913  Camp  Perry,  U.  S.  A.  . . .  4,959 

1914  Vyborg    5,025 

Your  Swiss  citizen  proves  the  adage,  "Practice  makes 
perfect."  He  is  the  marksman  par  excellence  because 
it  is  part  of  his  routine  life  to  make  himself  proficient 
in  marksmanship.  This  is  but  a  phase  of  the  general 
thoroughness  of  the  Swiss  military  system. 


*  The  only  time  Switzerland  was  not  first  (held  second  rank). 
87 


Just  as  the  Swiss  boy,  imbued  in  his  school  days 
with  the  idea  of  subjecting  himself  to  discipline,  falls 
readily  when  he  reaches  his  twentieth  year  into  the  cus- 
toms of  army  life;  just  as  the  physical  training  he  re- 
ceived in  his  youth  fits  him  to  bear  the  vigorous  hard- 
ships of  the  soldier,  so  does  his  regular  and  continuous 
target  practice  make  him  a  dreaded  figure  when  he  aims 
his  rifle  at  his  country's  foe. 

In  this,  as  in  other  particulars,  America  can  well 
take  example  from  Switzerland.  How  Swiss  boys  are 
trained  to  be  competent  marksmen,  and  the  best  way  of 
duplicating  the  plan  in  America  are  topics  fully  treated 
of  in  other  chapters.  But  it  is  fitting  here  to  emphasize 
the  practical  results  in  the  Alpine  republic,  and  their 
significance  to  us. 

So  much  for  rifle  practice.  Now  let  us  turn  to  the 
training  of  the  army  officers.  Any  Swiss  who  has  the 
ambition  and  possesses  the  intelligence  can  become  an 
officer  in  the  army.  After  completing  the  course  of 
sixty-seven  days  in  the  recruiting  school,  if  his  conduct 
during  that  time  warrants  a  recommendation  from  his 
superiors,  he  gets  a  call  to  attend  a  school  for  non- 
commissioned officers,  lasting  three  weeks,  after  which 
he  receives  the  rank  of  corporal.  As  such  he  attends 
another  recruiting  school  a  year  later,  and  the  corporal 
with  a  good  record  and  the  ambition  to  become  an  officer 
enters  the  school  for  officers  for  a  period  of  eighty  days. 
There  he  is  taught  all  that  a  second  lieutenant  and  first 
lieutenant  need  to  qualify  for  their  positions.  For  prac- 
tical and  training  purposes  a  school  for  non-commis- 
sioned officers  is  connected  with  the  school  for  officers. 

After  serving  eighty  days  the  second  lieutenant  goes 
through  a  thirteen  days'  regular  first-line  course  with 

88 


his  battalion,  and  the  following  year  spends  sixty-seven 
days  at  the  school  for  recruits  as  a  second  lieutenant. 
Time  of  instruction  to  become  a  second  lieutenant 
of  infantry: 

Days 

Recruiting  school    67 

Repetition  course  with  his  battalion 13 

School  for  non-commissioned  officers 21 

Recruiting  school  as  a  corporal 67 

Repetition  course  with  his  battalion 13 

School  of  officers 80 

Repetition  course  with  his  battalion 13 

Recruiting  school  as  a  lieutenant 67 

341 

For  four  years  the  second  lieutenant  must  serve 
thirteen  days  a  year  and  then  may  become  a  first  lieu- 
tenant. To  advance  to  the  rank  of  captain  he  must  take 
a  forty-five  days'  course  in  Central  School  No.  i. 

Officers  above  the  rank  of  captain  devote  a  consider- 
able part  of  their  time  to  special  courses  in  tactics,  in- 
formation, etc.  The  higher  the  rank,  the  greater  the 
amount  of  duty  and  preparation.  Commanders  of  divi- 
sions and  army  corps  commanders  are  chosen  from  the 
professional  officers. 

Switzerland  spends  on  her  army  eleven  francs 
($2.20)  per  capita  of  the  population,  and  twenty-three 
francs  ($4.50)  on  public  education. 

The  State  and  municipalities  expend  for  a  pupil  in 
the  elementary  public  school  105  francs  ($21.00)  ;  for 
pupils  in  secondary  schools  160  francs  ($32.00). 

89 


The  following  table  shows  how  the  Swiss  earn  their 
Hving : 

Of  I, GOO  Swiss: 

418  are  occupied  in  trade  and  manufacturing, 
332  in  agriculture, 

86  in  commerce, 

59  in  administrative  positions, 

50  in  transportation, 

55  in  unclassified  occupations. 


1,000 


Those  Swiss  who  are  physically  unfit  to  serve  in  the 
army  must  pay  an  annual  tax  of  exemption.  Swiss  citi- 
zens living  in  other  lands  are  obligated  to  pay  this  tax, 
and,  with  few  exceptions  they  do  so. 

It  amounts  to  a  ground  tax  of  ij4  per  cent.,  and  a 
personal  property  tax  of  i>4  per  thousand. 

The  equipment,  other  than  fire  and  side-arms — with 
the  exception  of  underwear,  shoes,  and  stockings — is 
furnished  by  the  Cantons.  The  cost  of  this  equipment 
is  from  185  francs  ($37)  for  the  infantry  to  225  francs 
($45)  for  the  cavalry.  Half  of  this  expense,  however, 
is  borne  by  the  Federal  government,  and  is  paid  out  of 
the  military  taxes. 

The  yearly  Federal  military  budget  in  peace  time 
(1914)  is  45,000,000  francs  ($9,000,000),  out  of  which 
is  paid  the  cost  of : 

1.  Half  of  the  equipment  to  the  Cantons. 

2.  The  whole  of  armament  of  all  military  branches. 

3.  The  maintenance  of   the   army  in   instruction  and 

training  courses. 

90 


The  pay  in  the  United  States  Army  is  as  follows : 

Lieutenant-General $ii,ooo  a  year 

Major-General 8,000 

Brigadier-General   6,000 

Colonel    4,000 

Lieutenant-Colonel    3^500 

Major    3,000 

Captain   2,400 

First-Lieutenant    2,000 

Second-Lieutenant 1,700 

Sergeant   360 

Corporal   252 

Private    180 

From  Colonel  down  the  payment  is  increased  every 
five  years. 


In  the  U.  S.  Navy  the  pay  is: 

Admiral $13,500  a  year 

Rear- Admiral     8,000 

Captain    4,000 

Commanders   3>500 

Lieutenant-Commanders   . .  3,000 

Lieutenants   2,400 

Ensigns    1,700 

Midshipmen    600 


93 


CHAPTER  IV. 

Swiss  mobilization  system  reorganized  four  months  before  out- 
break of  European  War. — Details  of  the  regulations. — Suc- 
cess of  first  try-out  August  i,  19 14. — Comments  of  United 
States  military  attaches  on  ground. — "Thorough,  earnesjt  and 
businesslike." — American  patriotism  and  American  sloth. — 
Colonel  Sanger's  observations. — We  must  apply  our  patriot- 
ism practically,  as  does  the  Swiss,  or  all  heroic  sacrifices 
will  be  in  vain. 

Whether  by  accident  or  because  rumors  of  impending 
war  had  reached  the  ears  of  the  Swiss  diplomats,  Swit- 
zerland reorganized  her  mobilization  system  on  April, 
1914,  four  months  before  the  outbreak  of  the  great 
world  struggle.  For  the  seven  preceding  years  sections 
of  the  1907  amendments  to  the  military  article  of  the 
Constitution  had  governed  mobilization  of  the  army. 
Experience,  however,  had  made  a  manifest  number  of 
possible  improvements  in  the  method  of  marshalling  the 
army,  and  these  were  inaugurated  in  the  decree  of  April 
I,  1914. 

Who  knows  what  tribulations  this  foresight  saved  the 
Swiss?  For  the  day  that  German  troops  assailed  Bel- 
gium and  invaded  Luxembourg,  the  four  frontiers  of 
Switzerland  were  walled  off  by  gleaming  bayonets  in  the 
capable  hands  of  425,000  trained  fighting  men. 

The  mobilization  regulations  of  April,  1914,  put  on 
a  war  footing  all  units,  detachments  and  staffs;  and, 

I.     Provide   for  the  transport  of  all  members   of  the 
army  to  their  points  of  mobilization. 

94 


2.  Govern  the  procedure  of  military  boards  convened 

to  place  a  valuation  on  horses  seized  for  cavalry 
uses. 

3.  Instruct  commandants  concerning  mobilization  points. 

4.  Direct  the  Cantonal  military  department  as  to  their 

handling  of  the  mobilization. 

The  duties  of  the  "Platz  Kommandant"  or  comman- 
dant at  place  of  mobilization  are : 

a.  Physical  examination  of  all  troops. 

b.  Sanitary  examination  of  all  locations  wherein  troops 

have  to  be  housed. 

c.  Regulations  concerning  the  number  of  horses  and 

all  kinds  of  vehicles  to  be  rented. 

d.  Supervising   the    departure   of    ready   troops    from 

places    of    mobilization    and    their    transport    by 
railroads. 

In  June,  1914,  the  new  mobilization  plsins  were 
brought  to  the  notice  of  every  Swiss.  Mobilization 
posters  giving  all  necessary  information  were  pasted  on 
public  bulletin  boards  in  cafes,  railroad  stations  and 
other  places,  so  that  when  the  real  call  for  the  colors 
was  issued  August  i,  1914,  the  town  crier  and  the  church 
bells  transmitted  to  every  Swiss  the  electrifying  com- 
mands : 

"Mobilization !"  and,  "To  the  Frontier !" 

Immediately  the  Landsturm  joined  the  customs 
guards  on  the  border,  sentries  and  outposts  seemed  to 
spring  up  from  the  ground  at  every  bridge  and  public 
building. 

On  the  first  day  after  the  call  every  soldier  went  to 
his  reporting  place.  The  members  of  infantry  battalions 
assembled    for  the   physical   examination   and   received 

95 


their  full  field  quota  of  ammunition  in  their  designated 
center,  where  from  they  proceded  by  railroad  to  one  of 
the  eight  main  mobilization  places.  Here  they  joined 
the  other  two  battalions  of  their  regiment,  obtained  their 
battalion  property,  such  as  baggage  wagons,  rolling 
kitchens,  ammunition  wagons,  blankets,  additional  in- 
trenching tools,  etc. 

Artillery  and  cavalrymen  went  directly  to  report  in 
one  of  the  main  mobilization  places,  where  their  bat- 
teries and  belongings  were  stationed,  and  staffs  had  pre- 
pared all  the  detail  as  to  the  outfitting  of  the  units. 

When  the  troops  were  assembled  and  equipped  in 
their  places  of  mobilization,  the  movement  of  concen- 
tration began.  All  the  forces  in  arms  either  by  railroad 
or  by  marches  started  toward  the  threatened  border, 
where  they  entered  their  organization. 

Every  Swiss  soldier  keeps  at  his  home  his  complete 
military  equipment  and  this,  of  course,  aids  a  speedy 
mobilization. 

Here  are  some  observations  of  American  officers. 

Major  Edward  P.  Lawton,  U.  S,  military  attache  in 
Switzerland  at  the  outbreak  of  the  war,  August  1914, 
says: 

"Of  course,  the  mobilization  of  the  Swiss  Army  was 
the  matter  of  chief  interest  for  me  as  well  as  for  the 
attaches  of  the  other  countries  represented  at  Bern. 
Unfortunately  for  us,  apparently  one  of  the  first  acts 
of  the  Swiss  General  Staff  was  to  issue  orders  to  taboo 
and  exclude  foreign  military  attaches  from  all  observa- 
tion of  the  details  of  mobilization,  and  not  one  of  us 
was  allowed  anywhere  near  the  frontiers.  We  could 
see  nothing  more  than  the  marching  of  the  troops 
through  the   streets  and  on  the  roads.     The  ordinary 

9^ 


civilian  could  get  nearer  the  frontier  then  we  could. 
This  is  simply  one  feature  of  the  thoroughness  of  their 
system  and  in  which  they  out-German  the  Germans, 
their  military  models.  The  Swiss  have  little  sentiment, 
lack  courtesy,  and  everything  is  strictly  a  matter  of  busi- 
ness with  them.  They  are  self-opinionated  and  Spartan- 
like, take  life  very  seriously  and  have  no  sympathy  for 
the  frivolous  (  ?)  foreigners  making  a  playground  of  a 
country,  the  people  of  which  have  ideals  so  opposite 
from  theirs.  These  characteristics,  which  render  them 
far  from  popular,  especially  with  the  Anglo-Saxon  ele- 
ment, are  sure  to  make  them  formidable  in  war.  Every 
man  is  a  soldier  if  physically  able  to  be  one.  Every 
Swiss  takes  a  deep  interest  in  the  army  and  appears  to 
be  imbued  with  the  highest  form  of  patriotism.  Their 
military  work  in  peace  time  or  in  war  time  is  the  same 
thorough,  plodding,  earnest,  work  which  makes  for  effi- 
ciency. Their  military  seems  to  take  no  rest,  as  though 
the  country  were  always  in  imminent  danger.  This  has 
been  going  on  steadily  since  the  reorganization  of  the 
army  on  modern  lines  in  1907,  and  has  produced  a 
wonderfully  efficient  military  system  perfectly  suited  to 
the  country." 

Captain  Charles  W,  Ext  on,  United  States  Army  at- 
tache  in  Switzerland,  contributes  some  observations  of 
the  1914  mobilization.     He  says : 

''Equipment:  The  equipment  of  all  arms,  and  in- 
cluding special  troops,  was  complete  in  every  detail  and 
in  excellent  conditions.  Whenever  troops  are  demobil- 
ized in  Switzerland  the  equipment  is  thoroughly  reno- 
vated and  repaired  before  putting  in  the  storehouse. 

"The  rolling  kitchen,  so  common  in  Europe,  was  used 
by  all  troops  except  the  mountain  troops.    The  mountain 

97 


troops  used  camp  kettles  and  a  small  combination  stove 
and  fireless  cooker,  four  to  each  company.  All  equip- 
ment of  the  mountain  troops  was  of  such  size  and 
shape  as  to  be  easily  packed  on  a  pack-saddle. 

"The  transportation  pertaining  to  a  company  of  in- 
fantry and  troops  of  cavalry  consisted  of  one  ammuni- 
tion caisson,  one  baggage  wagon,  one  rolling  kitchen, 
and  one  farm  wagon  (requisitioned). 

''Uniform:  The  Swiss  troops  are  just  now  making 
the  change  from  the  old  blue  to  the  new  gray  green; 
so  part  were  wearing  the  old  and  part  the  new  uniform. 

"The  troops  have  but  the  one  uniform  for  field  and 
garrison.  The  gray  green  is  a  most  excellent  color  for 
this  country,  as  it  blends  so  well  with  the  green  of  the 
valleys  and  with  the  rocks  and  snows  of  the  mountains. 
The  material  is  excellent  and  is  made  in   Switzerland. 

''Horses:  The  horse  in  Switzerland  is  a  valuable 
animal.  Those  horses  regularly  belonging  to  the  mili- 
tary department  have  been  purchased  with  great  care, 
principally  in  England,  Austria  and  Germany. 

"Since  the  war  began,  however,  some  have  been  pur- 
chased in  the  United  States.  All  new  horses  are  sent 
to  remount  depots  where  they  are  carefully  trained  by 
experienced  horsemen.  The  general  appearance  of  all 
horses  is  excellent.  The  horses  requisitioned  for  service 
at  mobilization,  as  well  as  those  in  the  hands  of  the  in- 
dividual cavalryman,  have  also  been  selected  with  care 
and  were  all  in  excellent  condition  when  reported  for 
service. 

"The  Soldier:  The  appearance  and  work  of  the  sol- 
dier during  the  few  days  of  mobilization  showed  him 
to  have  so  benefited  by  his  previous  training  in  service 

.        98 


as  to  make  the  Swiss  Army  probably  the  best-trained 
army,  for  its  size,  in  the  world  today. 

"Every  man  seemed  thoroughly  familiar  with  his 
duty,  which  he  performed  more  or  less  as  a  matter  of 
business. 

'The  discipline  appeared  excellent  and  of  the  charac- 
ter that  is  cheerfully  accepted  rather  than  maintained 
by  force.  The  relation  between  officers  and  men  was 
quite  intimate  at  times,  yet  there  was  at  the  same  time 
such  an  observance  of  details  as  might  be  found  only 
in  the  German  army.  As  a  matter  of  fact  everything 
about  the  Swiss  Army,  especially  their  thoroughness  as 
to  details,  seems  modelled  after  the  German  Army. 

''The  Officers:  An  officer  of  the  line  should  never  be 
judged  except  after  some  considerable  service  either  in 
campaign  or  at  maneuvers ;  yet,  from  the  work  observed 
during  mobilization  and  from  conversations  with  the 
Swiss  officers  during  the  past  three  months,  it  is  believed 
that  the  Swiss  officers  will,  especially  since  their  service 
during  the  past  year,  compare  favorably  with  the  officers 
of  any  army  in  the  world. 

"It  must  be  remembered  that  the  Swiss  officers  are 
selected  from  educated  men  of  Switzerland,  and  among 
them  are  found  the  leading  men  of  every  profession 
and  business,  and  when  one  considers  that  in  order  to 
have  reached  the  grade  of  second  lieutenant  he  must 
have  spent  at  least  336  days  of  intensive  military  train- 
ning, — 144  days  of  which  is  principally  school  work, — 
one  realizes  the  seriousness  with  which  the  service  is 
accepted  and  the  standard  of  thoroughness  which  may 
be  attained  in  such  a  militia  system." 

It  should  not  escape  note  that  Major  Lazvton  and 
Captain  Exton,  as  indeed  most  others  who  have  com- 

99 


mented  on  the  Swiss  military  establishment,  make  re- 
peated use  of  the  adjective  "thorough,"  "earnest,''  "busi- 
ness-Hke,''  "patriotic,"  in  describing  the  attitude  of  the 
officials  and  the  citizen-soldiers  toward  the  army.  It  is 
likewise  well  to  observe  that  all  agree  the  Swiss  are 
just  as  thorough  in  the  matter  in  times  of  peace  as  they 
are  when  war  exists  or  is  threatened. 

We  Americans  are  endowed  with  as  high  a  degree 
of  patriotism  as  are  the  Swiss,  but  we  sadly  lack  the 
Swiss  thoroughness  in  putting  our  lofty  sentiments  to 
practical  account.  We  are  too  prone  to  talk  about  the 
sacrifices  we  would  make  for  our  country  in  time  of 
need,  and  not  enough  inclined  to  equip  ourselves  so  that 
such  sacrifices,  when  the  need  does  arise,  shall  not  have 
been  in  vain. 

To  quote  again  from  the  words  of  an  American 
army  officer,  we  find  that  very  thought  occurred  to 
Colonel  William  Cary  Sanger  back  in  1900.  In  a  report 
he  made  in  that  year  he  wrote: 

"If  proof  were  needed  that  a  land  can  train  all  its 
citizens  for  the  efficient  and  intelligent  performance  of 
that  work  which  must  be  done  when  war  comes,  and  at 
the  same  time  escape  the  evils  of  what  is  today  called 
militarism,  that  proof  can  be  found  in  the  Republic  of 
Switzerland. 

"A  Republic  with  the  strongest  democratic  tenden- 
cies, with  a  constitution  not  unlike  our  own,  with  intense 
local  pride  and  cherished  local  traditions,  with  an  inbred 
conviction  that  the  central  authority  must  not  unduly 
encroach  upon  the  rights  of  the  Cantons,  with  a  worthy 
love  of  peace  and  its  blessings,  without  the  slighest 
thought  of  adding  a  foot  to  their  territory,  but  with  an 
intense  love  of  country  and  a  cheerful  willingness  to 

100 


perform  every  service  which  their  citizenship  entails, 
they  have  evolved  and  developed  a  military  system  which 
has  given  them  the  best  in  the  world.  It  is  of  the  great- 
est interest  to  us  that  in  organizing  this  splendid  body 
of  citizen-soldiers  they  have  worked  along  the  lines  laid 
down  by  the  men  who  formed  the  Constitution  of  the 
United  States. 

''The  right  of  the  Cantons  to  name  the  officers  who 
are  to  be  commissioned,  a  right  which  was  reserved  to 
the  States  by  our  Constitution,  exists  today  in  Switzer- 
land, subject  to  the  limitations  of  proved  efficiency  and 
fitness. 

"The  organization  and  discipline  of  the  Swiss  militia 
is  under  Federal  control  in  Switzerland,  just  as  is  pre- 
scribed by  our  Constitution;  the  universal  military  ser- 
vice still  remains  a  theory  with  us,  but  in  Switzerland 
it  is  real  and  actual. 

"But  one  striking  difference  separates  their  methods 
from  ours;  for  over  a  hundred  years  we  have  failed  to 
pass  any  laws  or  take  any  action  in  Congress  for  im- 
proving and  developing  our  citizen-soldiers ;  Switzerland, 
on  the  contrary,  has  profited  by  experience,  and  has 
made  its  mistakes  or  shortcomings  the  stepping-stone  to 
better  conditions;  it  has  carefully  and  conservatively 
changed  for  the  better  by  repeated  legislative  enactments 
the  organization,  the  equipment,  and  training  of  the 
militia  until  today  the  most  competent  officers  from  all 
over  the  world  pay  cheerful  tribute  to  its  high  ex- 
cellence." 

Yet  why  should  it  be  so?  The  average  American  in 
his  private  business  affairs  has  no  equal  in  thoroughness, 
earnest  attention  to  detail  and  business-like  methods. 
And  who  dare  say  the  average  American's  love  of  coun- 

xoi 


try  is  a  less  compelling  motive  than  his  desire  to  make 
money  for  himself?  God  forbid  it  should  be  so!  For 
if  the  mercenary,  the  material,  the  crass,  should  ever 
crowd  from  American  hearts  the  spirit  of  self-sacrifice 
that  moved  the  men  of  1776  and  those  of  1861,  then 
all  the  preparedness,  all  the  guns,  all  the  battle-fleets  our 
billions  of  wealth  can  buy  and  build,  will  not  avail 
against  a  foe  whose  hearts  are  staunch  and  throb  with 
holy  devotion  for  the  banner  under  which  they  fight. 

But  no;  it  is  not  that.  Today,  tomorrow,  just  as 
yesterday,  American  fathers  and  mothers  will,  if  the 
need  be,  cheerfully  surrender  their  fortunes,  ^  their 
homes,  their  loved  ones;  offer  their  all  on  the  altar  of 
their  country. 

And  that  is  the  reason  high  Heaven  cries  out  against 
the  sloth,  the  carelessness,  the  criminal  negligence  that 
has  failed  to  prepare  against  the  time  of  need.  Upon 
the  heads  of  those  who  have  been  so  blind  they  would 
not  see  must  be  the  blood  of  our  sons  who  will  have 
laid  down  their  lives  in  vain  if  America  does  not  start 
now  earnestly  and  thoroughly  to  apply  her  patriotism. 


102 


"Article  23. 

"It  shall  come  from  the  municipality  in  which  the 
members  of  the  soldier  reside.  If  they  live  in  a  foreign 
country,  from  their  native  municipality. 

"The  municipality  shall  fix  the  amount  of  aid  and 
take  all  other  measures  which  are  necessary  under  the 
conditions. 

"It  shall  report  to  the  Cantonal  authority  which  in 
turn  shall  forward  the  report  to  the  Federal  Military 
Department. 

"Article  24. 

"Three-fourths  of  such  municipal  expenses  are  de- 
frayed by  the  Federation,  one- fourth  by  the  respective 
Canton.'' 

Every  criticism  of  our  existing,  futile  system  must 
in  the  end  resolve  itself  into  the  argument  for  compulso- 
ry military  training  of  all  our  able-bodied  male  citizens. 
National  Guard  regiments  recruited  to  war  strength  by 
the  enlistment  of  men  who  had  undergone  a  short  period 
of  compulsory  military  training  would  help  to  make  up 
an  army  worthy  of  America,  and  fully  able  to  uphold 
the  honor  of  the  flag  under  which  it  marched. 

Give  us  such  an  army,  capable  of  being  mobilized  in 
the  briefest  space  of  time,  and  you  will  find  no  Carranza 
despoiling  our  countrymen,  no  Villa  burning  our  towns, 
and  no  first-class  power,  whether  in  the  regions  of  the 
rising  nor  setting  sun,  counting  on  the  day  when  she 
may  hurl  her  armies  against  our  rich  shores. 


109 


CHAPTER  VI. 

Military  training  taken  as  matter  of  course  by  Swiss. — Realize 
it  upbuilds  their  bodies  as  well  as  fits  them  to  defend 
Fatherland. — Is  the  sturdy,  moral  stamina  of  our  forefathers 
disappearing? — Preparedness  must  keep  pace  with  growth  of 
material  wealth  if  we  are  not  to  be  despoiled. — Swiss  military 
system  fosters  democracy,  not  militarism. — Captain  Mott's  ob- 
servations.— Territorial  assignment  of  Swiss  troops  aid  to 
speedy  and  effective  mobilization. — Maneuvers  in  Switzerland 
train  officers  to  handle  large  bodies  of  troops. — Lack  of 
opportunities  for  American  generals  to  maneuver  armies. — 
Experience  of  General  McDowell.' 

The  Swiss  does  not  think  of  his  military  training 
as  something  separate  from  his  ordinary  walk  of  life; 
for  him  it  is  a  matter  of  course  that  he  should  train  for 
the  defense  of  his  home,  and  devote  some  of  his  time 
to  his  country.  Not  the  least  reason  for  the  popularity 
of  the  military  system,  is  the  knowledge  that  military 
training  is  a  great  builder  of  his  physique — a  sound 
body  in  which  a  sound  mind  can  best  be  cultivated.  The 
ten  weeks  of  the  first  year,  and  two  weeks  in  each  of 
the  next  eight  years  seems  not  at  all  too  great  a  time 
for  the  Swiss  to  devote  to  his  fatherland. 

In  their  pursuit  of  material  wealth  and  comfort,  a 
rapidly  growing  number  of  Americans  seem  to  have  no 
time  to  harden  their  bodies,  to  practice  self-denial,  to 
render  themselves  fit  to  bear  the  burdens  of  a  soldier's 
life  should  their  country  need  them.  We  forget  that 
we  owe  the  State  which  guarantees  us  life,  liberty  and 
pursuit  of  happiness,  protection  with  our  bodies,  if  need 
be.    Only  a  citizenry  of  which  every  individual  is  trying 

no 


to  contribute  to  the  health,  vigor  and  tenacity  of  the 
whole  is  fit  to  successfully  defend  and  regenerate  a  na- 
tion. The  vigor  and  vitality  of  our  nation  depends  not 
on  a  few  outdoor  sports  or  athletics,  but  on  a  uniform, 
thorough  and  efficient  physical  training,  which  implants 
discipline,  the  highest  attribute,  not  only  of  a  soldier, 
but  of  manhood. 

What  has  become  of  the  sturdy  pioneer  who  carved 
and  hewed  and  built  with  his  own  strong  hands  the 
temple  of  America's  greatness  as  a  nation,  following 
the  successful  struggle  for  independence?  The  men 
whom  history  links  with  the  liberation  and  growth  in 
power  of  the  United  States  were  strong  in  body  and 
mind.  Where  are  their  counterparts  today?  Their 
youth  and  later  life  were  marked  by  constant  struggle 
to  obtain  a  livelihood  and  to  achieve  their  ideals  of  liber- 
ty. Not  only  those  men  who  tower  conspicuously  in 
our  history,  but  the  whole  nation,  derived  its  health,  its 
vigor,  its  tenacity  from  the  rugged  life  of  its  plain 
citizens.  Danger  lurked  at  every  turn,  danger  was  met 
always  by  a  courageous  heart,  a  clear  mind  and  a  hard- 
ened, trained  body. 

What  is  the  picture  today?  Goldsmith  told  the  sorry 
fate  awaiting  that  nation  "where  wealth  accumulates  and 
men  decay."  Men  accumulating  wealth,  need  not  decay, 
but  they  are  most  likely  to  do  so,  unless  they  set  about 
the  task  of  preparing  themselves  to  defend  that  wealth. 
It  is  an  outstanding  truth  that  the  faster  a  nation's 
resources  develop,  the  more  she  piles  up  riches,  the 
wider  her  lines  of  commerce  are  flung,  the  greater 
grows  her  need  for  defense  against  the  encroachments 
of  jealous  rivals.  If  a  nation's  preparation  for  military 
defenses  does  not  keep  pace  with  her  commercial  and 

in 


industrial  expansion,  she  seals  the  doom  of  that  very 
prosperity  which  dominates  her  existence. 

This  is  looking  at  the  question  purely  from  a  practi- 
cal standpoint.  Perhaps  it  explains  the  zeal  with  which 
our  great  business  interests  have  advocated  prepared- 
ness. It  should  appeal  even  to  those  Americans  who 
no  longer  have  ideals  and  whose  souls  are  twisted  into 
the  shape  of  the  dollar  sign. 

But  let  him  look  upon  it  as  he  will,  with  eyes  that 
see  only  the  necessity  of  protecting  our  material  wealth 
or  with  the  eyes  of  the  patriot,  a  lover  of  his  country, 
every  American  must  sooner  or  later  either  take  the 
precaution  an  adequate  preparedness  will  afford  him, 
or  take  the  bitter  consequences  of  slothful  folly. 

The  Swiss  is  a  patriot;  also  he  is  a  hard-headed 
citizen  who  knows  his  field  or  his  factory  would  not  be 
his  very  long  if  he  were  not  able  to  defend  it.  That 
is  his  state  of  mind  when,  at  twenty  years  of  age,  he 
presents  himself  as  a  recruit.  His  body  is  developed 
and  hardened.  And  he  is  a  marksman.  Thus  equipped 
it  is  small  wonder  a  few  weeks  training  turn  him  into 
a  good  soldier. 

There  is  no  such  thing  as  a  military  aristocracy  in 
Switzerland.  Indeed,  the  Swiss  military  system  is,  in 
itself,  one  of  the  most  potent  democratising  forces  in  the 
republic.  The  Swiss  sees  the  result  of  militarism  on  the 
civil  life  of  the  nations  around  them,  and  they  want 
none  of  it.  They  want  no  cast,  no  strutting,  petty  tyrants 
in  gold  lace  to  oppress  them. 

In  all  Switzerland  there  are  only  189  professional 
army  ofRcers  and  all  of  them  earn  their  salaries  in  time 
of  peace  as  instructors  in  the  various  military  schools. 
The  salaries  vary  from  3,700  francs  ($740)  for  a  cap- 

112 


time.  Just  how  many  days  it  would  require  to  concen- 
trate in  one  place  30,000  of  our  Regulars  with  all  their 
baggage  and  transport,  or  how  long  to  assemble  four 
such  commands  of  Regulars  and  militia,  it  is  difficult 
to  say,  but  probably  it  would  be  nearer  three  weeks 
than  three  days. 

"Comparisons  may  be  odious,  but  when  to  maintain 
1,000  men  costs  28  times  as  much  in  one  country  as  in 
another  the  relative  readiness  for  war  of  the  two  forces 
is  worth  examining. 

"It  is  impossible  to  spend  several  weeks,  as  I  have 
done,  in  daily  contact  with  detachments  of  the  Swiss 
Army  engaged  in  their  ordinary  daily  routine  without 
receiving  a  lasting  impression  of  the  willingness  and 
devotion  of  the  men  and  zeal  and  capacity  of  the  officers. 
The  term  'militia  army'  has  given  the  world  a  mistaken 
idea  of  the  effectiveness  and  readiness  of  this  force, 
which  I  think  cannot  be  judged  by  the  militia  standards 
of  either  America  or  England.  'Semipermanent  army' 
would  be  a  more  correct  term  in  view  of  the  severe 
exactions  of  service,  the  length  of  time  devoted  to  field 
training,  and  the  military  education  of  the  officers. 

"The  progress  of  training  of  the  Swiss  Militia  is 
exactly  the  reverse  in  theory  and  fact  of  that  in  opera- 
tion with  our  militia.  Good  performance  in  the  field 
being  the  whole  end  and  object  of  military  instruction 
and  the  time  being  short,  the  Swiss  begin,  and  we  may 
say  end,  their  teachings  in  the  open  country. 

"After  a  thorough  course  in  the  school  of  the  soldier 
and  squad,  work  out  in  the  open  fields  is  begun  and 
the  recruit  comes  face  to  face  with  the  primitive  prob- 
lems of  a  campaign  and  learns  at  the  very  start  'what 
he  is  here  for.'     He  is  taught  to  march  correctly  in 

115 


column,  form  line  and  march  in  line,  but  these  exercises 
are  made  an  incident  of  going  to  and  coming  from 
'work.'  The  real  business  of  his  life,  he  learns,  is  to 
march  steadily  under  a  heavy  pack,  shoot  straight,  take 
cover,  and  obey  his  squad  leader.  The  candidate-officers' 
and  junior  ^officers'  chief  thought  is  to  do  outpost  and 
patrol  duty  effectively,  to  read  the  map  correctly,  to 
post  their  men  advantageously,  and  to  solve  on  the 
ground  minor  tactical  problems.  They  are  questioned 
and  noted  on  these  points  and  they  realize  that  their 
advancement  depends  upon  the  intelligence  they  show 
in  the  presence  of  actual  though  elementary  military 
facts. 

"After  three  weeks  thus  spent  the  recruit  puts  in  a 
week  at  battalion  exercises  with  longer  marches  and 
two  nights  in  bivouac  with  outpost  duty  at  night,  fol- 
lowed by  exercises  all  the  forenoon  and  a  march  home 
in  the  evening.  The  fifth  and  sixth  weeks  entire  are 
spent  on  a  long  march  in  rough  country,  where  the  bat- 
talion acts  for  the  most  part  as  if  in  the  presence  of  an 
enemy,  maneuvering  by  day,  establishing  outposts  at 
night;  and  conducting  combat  exercises  with  ball  car- 
tridges (90  per  man).  The  contrast  between  this  sort 
of  militia  training  and  that  seen  in  America  or  England 
is  most  marked.  The  physiological  effect  on  the  men 
is  certainly  important.  The  first  conceptions  of  the  real 
business  of  a  soldier,  his  whole  reason  for  existence, 
are  apt  to  produce  a  lasting  impresson  on  a  young  man. 
In  our  service  the  recruit's  first  enthusiasms  are  con- 
centrated (and  dissipated)  in  the  grind  of  barrackyard 
drill,  where  no  man  need  or  is  expected  to  use  his  head. 
As  these  same  recruits,  whether  fourth-class  cadets  or 
regular  enlisted  men,  grow  old  in  the  service  and  in 

116 


turn  have  to  instruct  others,  the  ideas  crystallized  in 
them  during  their  first  training  prevail,  and  instinctively 
they  give  importance  to  the  things  which  have  been 
most  deeply  impressed  upon  them — judge  of  regiments 
by  close-order  performances  and  seek  to  have  their  own 
excel  in  a  similar  way,  while  work  in  the  open,  amongst 
farmhouses,  villages,  fields  and  woods,  seems  a  thing 
quite  apart,  and  occasional  occurrence  in  no  way  inti- 
mately bound  up  in  a  soldier's  routine  existence. 

''In  Switzerland  there  are  no  parades  or  reviews  or 
drills  beyond  the  company  or  battalion.  These  things 
would  doubtless  be  done  in  some  measure  if  there  existed 
a  permanent  army,  but  they  would  always  come  last  and 
be  least  thought  of,  because  through  the  push  of  stem 
necessity  the  Swiss  has  sifted  out  the  absolute  essentials 
to  fitness  for  'War,  and  these  essentials,  field  exercises 
and  good  shooting^  he  works  at  to  the  exclusion  of  every- 
thing else. 

"A  man  cannot  be  taught  billiards  on  a  dining-table, 
nor  football  in  a  gymnasium,  nor  hunting  in  a  riding 
hall.  He  also  cannot  be  taught  minor  tactics  on  a  mili- 
tary reservation,  however  large,  and  the  Swiss  do  not 
attempt  such  impossible  feats. 

"The  Swiss  farmer  is  the  most  independent  and 
jealous  person  on  the  globe,  but  he  has  voluntarily 
yielded  to  supreme  military  necessity  and  voted  to  let 
troops  maneuver  over  his  fields;  and  he  greatly  enjoys 
getting  a  few  francs  for  a  little  damage  done  to  his 
fence  or  pasture." 

One  great  advantage  in  the  organization  of  Switzer- 
land's army  is  its  territorial  assignment  and  distribution. 
The  first  and  second  divisions  are  recruited  from  dis- 
tricts along  or  near  the  French  border,  the  third  and 

"7 


fourth  from  along  the  German  border,  the  fifth  on  the 
Austrian,  and  the  sixth  on  the  Italian  frontier.  That 
not  only  allows  a  very  quick  mobilization  at  any  danger 
point,  but  in  peace  time,  by  combined  maneuvers,  a  prob- 
lematical invasion  can  be  carefully  conducted  and  provi- 
sion for  repelling  a  real  invasion  considered  from  all 
angles.  Annual  maneuvers  with  large  bodies  of  troops 
are  responsible  for  much  of  the  efficiency  and  mobility 
of  the  Swiss  Army. 

Back  in  1852  the  first  camp  of  30,000  troops  took 
place  in  Thun.  For  the  last  twenty  years  the  fall  ma- 
neuvers of  parts  of  the  Swiss  army  assemble  annually 
some  60,000  men  of  all  branches. 

That  gives  the  Army  Corps,  Division,  Brigade,  Regi- 
ment and  Battalion  Commanders  an  opportunity  to  gain 
experience  in  the  handling  of  large  bodies  of  troops,  it 
promotes  the  spirit  of  cooperation  among  officers  and 
men  and  determines  whether  they  are  capable  to  hold 
their  positions. 

The  wide  distribution  of  the  sections  of  our  Regular 
Army  and  the  upkeep  of  ancient  military  posts  which 
have  had  no  strategical  value  since  Indian  warfare  days 
are  obstacles  to  the  assembling  and  maneuvering  of  even 
a  small  force.  We  are  today  confronted  with  exactly 
the  same  conditions  as  prevailed  at  the  beginning  of  the 
Civil  War.  Our  higher  officers  are  unable  to  bring  to- 
gether for  maneuvers  anything  like  the  number  of  troops 
which,  in  war  time,  they  would  have  to  direct  from  the 
outset. 

What  General  McDowell  said  in  his  testimony  be- 
fore the  Committee  on  the  conduct  of  the  Civil  War 
could  as  well  have  been  spoken  in  19 16  before  the  Mili- 
tary Affairs  Committee  of  the  United  States*  Senate : 

118 


"  'I  had  no  opportunity  to  test  my  machinery,  to 
move  it  around  and  see  whether  it  would  work  smoothly 
or  not/  General  McDowell  stated.  'In  fact,  such  was 
the  feeling,  that  when  I  had  one  body  of  eight  regiments 
of  troops  reviewed  together,  the  general  censured  me 
for  it,  as  if  I  was  trying  to  make  a  show.  I  did  not 
think  so.  There  was  not  a  man  there  who  had  ever 
maneuvered  troops  in  large  bodies.  There  was  not  one 
in  the  Army.  I  did  not  believe  there  was  one  in  the 
whole  country.  At  least  I  knew  there  was  no  one  there 
who  had  ever  handled  30,000  troops.  I  had  seen  them 
handled  abroad  in  reviews  and  marches,  but  I  had  never 
handled  that  number,  and  no  one  here  had.  I  wanted 
very  much  a  little  time,  all  of  us  wanted  it.  We  did 
not  have  a  bit  of  it.'  " 


119 


CHAPTER   VII. 

Physical  training  of  Swiss  boy  is  the  foundation  of  Switzerland's 
preparedness. — Public  schools  equipped  for  gymnastics  system 
uniform  throughout  country. — ^Military  training  without 
arms. — Male  public-school  teachers  are  the  instructors. — All 
under  Federal  supervision. — Physical  training  the  national 
sport. — "Turnfeste"  universally  participated  in. — Aim  is  to 
train  classes. — Our  athletics  stimulate  individual  rivalry. — 
Statistics  prove  value  of  training. — Swiss  boy  learns  to  obey 
orders  in  physical  training  classes,,  hence  develops  itito  the 
best  disciplined  of  all  soldiers. 

Character  building,  as  well  as  body  building,  is  a 
prime  object  of  physical  training  as  taught  in  the  Swiss 
public  schools;  and  mental  development  depends  largely 
on  physical  development,  and  keeps  pace  with  it. 

The  Swiss,  in  laying  the  only  adequate  foundation 
for  the  system  of  national  defense  that  is  the  marvel  of 
the  world,  have  created  a  race  of  men,  strong,  virile, 
dexterous  and  well-formed  in  body,  mind  and  character. 

A  uniform  system  must  be  at  the  root  of  successful 
physical  training,  just  as  physical  training  must  be  uni- 
form throughout  a  nation  if,  thereby,  that  nation's 
youths  are  to  be  fitted,  when  they  reach  maturity,  to  be- 
come  with  only  a  few  weeks'  compulsory  military  train- 
ing,  well  equipped  defenders  of  their  country. 

That  a  Swiss  soldier,  in  spite  of  his  short  service, 
is  as  worthy  a  fighting  unit  as  any  of  those  of  the  great 
military  powers,  can  be  attributed  to  the  systematic 
physical  training  he  received  as  a  boy  in  the  public 
school,  that  and  nothing  else. 

At  the  age  of  eight  every  Swiss  schoolboy  begins  his 

120 


program  of  physical  training.  The  course  consists  of 
the  practice  of  exercises,  selected  after  long  experience, 
and  applied  in  keeping  with  their  value  as  regards  a 
systematic,  harmonious  training  of  the  body  and  develop- 
ment of  its  organs. 

It  progresses  from  easy  performances  for  the  boy  of 
eight  to  difficult  problems  for  the  boy  of  fifteen  in  setting 
up  exercises,  calisthenics,  marching  and  running,  work 
on  horizontal  bars,  parallel  bars,  climbing  poles  and 
horses,  jumping,  vaulting,  and  all  other  applied  gym- 
nastics. This  work  gradually  takes  up  more  and  more 
of  the  boy's  time.  The  boy  of  eight  begins  with  two 
hours  a  week,  while  he  of  fifteen  devotes  one  hour  every 
day  to  such  practice. 

The  exercises  and  drills  are  conducted  out  of  doors 
whenever  possible. 

Every  school  yard  has  stationary  horizontal  bars, 
parallel  bars,  climbing  apparatus,  and  side  horses. 

The  execution  of  exercises  by  classes  or  teams,  so 
that  the  work  is  performed  simultaneously,  with  snap 
and  vigor,  is  considered  a  great  factor  in  discipline  and 
is,  therefore,  extensively  practiced. 

Physical  training  is  the  only  subject  in  Swiss  schools 
under  the  supervision  of  the  Federal  government.  The 
whole  system  is  uniform  and  there  is  only  one  primer 
for  all  the  instruction. 

The  most  important  factor  in  every  lesson  of  physical 
training  is  the  military  training  without  arms  in  absolute 
accordance  with  the  army  regulations.  About  one  fourth 
of  every  period  of  instruction  is  taken  up  by  exercises 
like:  Position  of  attention,  the  rests,  facing,  steps  and 
marchings,  school  of  squads,  alignments,  taking  distance 
and  intervals,  oblique  march,  turning  on  moving  and  fixed 


121 


pivots,  open  and  closed   formation  in  squads,  platoons 
and  companies. 

All  this  Federal  physical  instruction  is  given  by  male 
teachers  of  the  Swiss  public  schools.  The  school-teacher 
is  the  primary  military  instructor  of  every  Swiss  boy, 
and  to  make  him  proficient  to  teach  in  this  subject  he 
takes,  while  at  the  teachers'  college,  a  rigid  four  years' 
course  in  physical  training  along  with  other  lines  of 
study. 

The  examination  as  to  his  fitness  to  instruct,  after 
completing  his  course,  is  held  by  government  inspect- 
ors. Every  year  an  inspection  and  examination  of  all 
boys'  classes  and  grades  is  undertaken  by  the  Federal 
examiners. 

Systematic  physical  training  is  the  national  sport  in 
Switzerland,  and  the  boys  and  young  men  of  the  Alpine 
republic  band  together  in  athletic  clubs  which  encourage 
rivalry  among  the  teams  in  performing  exercises  requir- 
ing exactness,  gracefulness,  strength  and  will-power. 

"Turnfeste"  or  meets  of  physical  training  clubs  are 
held  for  districts  of  Counties,  Cantons  (States)  and  the 
Federation,  and  on  such  occasions  one  who  sees  can 
realize  the  wonderful  achievements  of  the  Swiss  system 
of  school  training.  In  1910,  at  Basel,  15,000  young 
Swiss  in  their  athletic  uniforms  simultaneously  executed 
gymnastics  exercises.  The  promptness  and  the  snap 
with  which  the  movements  were  gone  through  was  a 
most  inspiring  sight. 

Physical  and  military  training  have  the  effect  of  in- 
culcating democracy  and  at  the  same  time  teach  the  bene- 
fit of  system,  organization  and  a  definite  purpose  in  the 
nation's  defense  to  the  social,  political  and  business  units 
of  our  citizenship, 

122 


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We  can  hardly  train  the  minds  of  men  to  work  al- 
ways for  one  aim  or  in  complete  unity,  but  we  can  easily 
train  the  bodies  to  work  in  unison,  and  with  precision. 
By  doing  so  we  will  show  the  results  from  disciplined, 
cooperative  work  of  men's  bodies,  the  health  of  which 
is  an  unqualified  necessity  in  the  development  of  a  sound 
mind. 

The  impression  on  the  unlooker  such  Turn  meet 
makes  gives  rise  to  enthusiasm  and  patriotism.  Look 
at  them  charging  forward!  and  30,000  strong  arms  cut 
the  air  with  lightning  precision.  Such  a  spectacle  imbues 
all  of  us  with  confidence  in  what  those  arms  would  do 
if  raised  for  the  defense  of  the  Republic.  But  not 
merely  does  stimulation  of  the  people's  courage  and  con- 
fidence result  from  such  a  performance ;  it  bears  also  a 
healthful  reaction  for  the  individual  athlete. 

It  must  be  sublime  to  each  of  them  to  know  his 
15,000  comrades  actuated  by  the  same  spirit,  exercising 
the  same  strength  and  the  willingness  to  sacrifice  their 
splendid  bodies  on  the  altar  of  their  country.  The  Swiss 
gymnastic  meet  inculcates  self -discipline  and  promotes  a 
sense  of  duty  to  protect,  but  not  to  provoke. 

No  other  nation  has  such  a  highly  developed  system 
of  physical  training  as  Switzerland.  The  Swiss  Turners 
frequently  take  the  highest  prizes  at  the  contests  of  the 
great  German  Turnfeste  and  Fetes  gymnastiques  of 
France,  keeping  pace  with  their  compatriot  sharp- 
shooters who  won  the  highest  honors  in  17  out  of  18 
international  shoots. 

It  is  hardly  necessary  to  point  out  the  good  resulting 
from  such  thorough  training.  The  boys  acquire  obedi- 
ence and  subjection  to  discipline,  two  qualities  that  are 
just  as  helpful  in  civilian  life  as  in  that  of  a  soldier, 

123 


The  great  aim  of  the  Swiss  system  of  physical  edu- 
cation is  to  train  classes,  teams — large  groups  of  boys 
so  as  to  implant  a  cooperative  spirit,  a  spirit  of  "one 
for  all  and  all  for  one." 

The  tendency  of  American  athletics  is  to  stimulate 
individual  rivalry  while  the  Swiss  gymnastic  system  aims 
at  a  collective  training  and  team  rivalry.  Every  indi- 
vidual of  a  team  is  made  to  feel  that  if  he  fails  in  the 
performance,  the  work  of  the  whole  suffers  and  the 
team  falls  behind.  The  Swiss  knows  that  only  the 
strictest  discipline  and  precise  cooperation  of  every  mem- 
ber of  a  gymnastic  section  leads  to  success. 

And  is  not  the  State  only  a  big  club,  a  team,  the 
welfare  of  which  depends  on  the  spirit  of  organization 
and  cooperation  that  lives  in  the  individual  citizens?  A 
State  can  only  succeed  if  every  member  is  fit  to  do  his 
part  for  the  good  of  the  whole,  and  what  cannot  be 
done  if  a  spirit  of  rampant  individualism  prevails. 
Every  citizen  who  realizes  his  own  ultimate  success  de- 
pends on  that  of  his  neighbor  has  a  conception  of  good 
citizenship. 

That  the  value  of  methodical  physical  training  is  not 
an  imaginary  or  exaggerated  one,  but  scientifically  and 
practically  proved,  the  following  facts  show: 

Of  the  young  Swiss  who  reach  their  20th  year  and 
have  to  pass  a  physical  and  mental  examination  for 
acceptance  to  the  army,  about  63 J4  per  cent,  are  ac- 
cepted and  14  per  cent,  permanently  rejected  for  defects. 
The  remaining  22 J4  per  cent,  are  rejected  for  re-exami- 
nation a  year  later,  for  such  reasons  as  insufficient 
height  or  insufficient  chest  measurement. 

The  military  authorities  send  these  young  men 
through  a  special  physical  training  course  for  the  fol- 

124 


lowing  year,  and  when  they  come  for  physical  test  the 
next  year  they  are  tall  enough  or  their  chests  have  ex- 
panded. That  is  an  illustration  of  the  practical  and 
scientific  value  of  physical  training,  of  which  the  much 
dreaded  military  training  without  arms  is  the  most  im- 
portant branch. 

The  Swiss  government  early  recognized  the  value  of 
physical  training  in  schools  as  a  means  of  preparedness. 
Article  102  of  the  Swiss  Military  Law  makes  it  com- 
pulsory for  each  Canton  to  see  to  it  that  all  males  of 
school  age  receive  physical  training,  and  further  provides 
that  the  Federal  Government  issue  the  course  of  the 
instruction  for  physical  training  teachers,  and  generally 
supervise  the  physical  training  of  the  boys.  The  danger 
that  would  have  lain  in  permitting  different  systems  to 
be  in  vogue  in  various  Cantons  was  thus  avoided. 

The  necessity  for  uniformity  and  system  in  any  ef- 
forts to  develop  the  body  was  pointed  out  by  Adolph 
Spiess,  pioneer  in  the  realm  of  school  gymnastics.  He 
set  about  painstakingly  to  select  from  the  many  exercises, 
those  that  were  of  real  value,  to  separate  the  wheat 
from  the  chaff.  Pupils  and  successors  of  Spiess  fol- 
lowed the  example  their  mentor  had  set.  They  assidu- 
ously continued  to  select,  separate  and  classify  the  va- 
rious exercises,  with  the  object  of  determining  which 
were  the  most  beneficial  and  to  what  ages  of  boyhood 
they  were  suited. 

At  Basel,  Switzerland,  in  1870,  Alfred  Maul,  Wilhelm 
Jenny  and  Frederick  Iselin,  all  authorities  on  gymnastics, 
culminated  a  long  period  of  exhaustive  study,  experi- 
ment and  observation  by  producing  a  schedule  laying 
down  the  ages  at  which  boys  should  be  instructed  in 
each  class  of  exercises. 

125 


A  Manual  of  Physical  Training 

AND 

Preparatory  Military  Instruction 

For  Schools  of  the  United  States 

A  MODIFIED   SWISS  SYSTEM   INTENDED   TO 

PROVIDE   FOR   THE   STRONG    COMMON 

NATIONAL  DEFENSE  OF  AMERICA 


BY 
FREDERICK  A.  KUENZLI 

Assistant  Appraiser  Port  of  New  Tor): 

Graduate  of  Teaoher*8  College  of  Wettlngen,  Switzerland,  and  of  the 

]^Ie  Polytechniqne  F6d6rale  at  Zurich,  Switzerland 

Formerly  an  Officer  of  the  Swiss  Army 


HENRY  PANZER 

Maitre  de  Gymnastique  ;    Graduate  of  Berne,  Switzerland ;    Grossherzog 

Ilche  Turnlehrer-Bildungsanstalt,  Karlsruhe,  Germany  ;  Baron  Posse's 

Normal  School  of  Gymnastics,  Boston,  Mass. ;    Member  of 

Massachusetts   Medical    G3nmna8tic    Association,  1904 

Teacher  of  Swedish  Gymnastics  and  Lecturer  on 

Kinesiology  at  Chautauqua,  N.  Y.,  1916 


WITH  ONE  HUWDRBD  AND  TWBhVE  ILLUSTRATIONS 


Neto  got* 
THE  MACMILLAN  COMPANY 
-      1916 

All  righte  reserved 


This  work,  while  it  did  not  yet  devise  a  system  devoid 
of  faults,  was  an  important  step  forward,  and  is  a 
mile-stone  on  the  way  to  the  present  perfection  of  Swiss 
physical  instruction. 

Following  the  research  of  Maul,  Jenny  and  Iselin, 
physiology  came  to  be  more  and  more  a  factor  in  scien- 
tific physical  training.  Physiological  demands  laid  stress 
on  exercises  of  rapidity,  rather  than  those  requiring 
force  or  skill,  and  there  soon  spread  a  more  thorough 
understanding  of  the  effect  of  the  different  exercises 
upon  heart  and  lung  action,  circulation  of  the  blood, 
metabolism,  nutrition  and  other  organic  functions. 

Not  the  least  of  the  accomplishments  of  the  numerous 
students  of  the  subject  who  gradually  developed  the 
Swiss  system  of  physical  training  was  the  choice  of  exer- 
cises which  tend  to  correct  oppression  of  respiration  and 
deformation  of  the  spine,  often  resulting  from  the  school- 
room posture. 

Instruction  in  physical  training  has  been  compulsory 
in  all  Swiss  schools  since  1874.  The  Federal  govern- 
ment published  its  first  manual  in  1898;  the  manual  was 
revised  to  include  improvements  in  the  system. 

A  complete  survey  of  the  system  and  the  manner  in 
which  instruction  was  being  carried  on,  with  the  aim 
of  bringing  it  to  the  highest  possible  state  of  perfection, 
was  undertaken  by  the  government  in  1903. 

A  commission  composed  of  twelve  masters  of  gym- 
nastics and  a  representative  of  the  Military  Department 
was  named  to  investigate  and  formulate  recommenda- 
tions for  improvements. 

For  nine  years  this  commission  pursued  its  labors, 
adopted  whatever  was  of  value  from  the  German  and 
Swedish  systems  and,  by  eliminating  the  useless  or  harm- 

127 


ful  and  adding  exercises  of  merit,  raised  the  Swiss 
system  to  the  highest  efficiency.  The  new  manual,  em- 
bodying these  changes,  was  published  in  191 2  in  the  Ger- 
man language,  in  1914  in  the  French,  and  in  1915  in 
Italian.  * 

It  is  the  subjection  to  discipline  instilled  in  the  minds 
of  the  Swiss  boy  at  school  that  makes  that  boy,  when 
grown,  a  good  soldier.  And,  after  all,  despite  our 
friends  who  say  warfare  is  no  longer  a  struggle  of  men, 
it  is  the  man  who  counts. 

Homer  Lea  in  his  wonderful  work,  "The  Valor  of 
Ignorance/'  speaks  truly: 

"Warfare,  either  ancient  or  modern,  has  never  been 
nor  will  ever  be  mechanical.  There  is  no  such  possi- 
bility as  the  combat  of  instruments.  It  is  the  soldier  that 
brings  about  victory  or  defeat.  The  knowledge  of  com- 
manders and  the  involuntary  comprehension  and  obedi- 
ence to  orders  is  what  determines  the  issue  of  battles. 
As  the  instruments  of  warfare  become  more  intricate, 
the  discipline  and  'esprit  de  corps'  must  be  increased 
accordingly." 

There  is  the  crux  of  the  matter.  The  Swiss  boy 
learns  to  "involuntarily  comprehend  and  obey  orders" 
in  his  physical  training  classes  at  school.  You  can  bend 
the  sapling,  but  not  the  tree.  The  lesson  the  Swiss 
learns  as  a  boy  he  never  forgets. 

Unfortunately,  the  feature  of  the  Swiss  system  that 
has  been  most  generally  dwelt  upon  in  the  past  is  that 
compelling  military  service  from  every  male  adult  who 


*The  Author  of  this  book  with  Henry  Panzer,  Director  of 
physical  training,  published  a  "Manual  of  Physical  Training  and 
Preparatory  Military  Instruction  for  Schools  of  the  United 
States."  This  work  is  along  the  lines  of  the  Swiss  system  and 
has  been  adopted  by  several  cities  of  the  United  States. 

128 


CHAPTER  VIII. 

Cadet  corps  complement  physical  instruction  in  Swiss  schools. — 
Alrnost  universal,  even  where  it  is  voluntary. — Boy  gains 
rudiments  of  military  drill  and  tactics  and  learns  to  shoot. — 
Natural  sprit  of  youth  utilized  to  advantage  of  boyhood  and 
the  nation. — Awaken  keener  interest  in  study  of  history. — 
Tactical  lessons  in  account  of  Bunker  Hill. — Rules  and  re- 
sults of  cadet  corps  system  in  Langnau. — Rifle  practice. — 
Cadet  corp^  develop  both  body  and  character. 

Second  only  to  the  physical  training  they  receive  as 
a  part  of  the  public  school  curriculum  in  the  prepared- 
ness of  Swiss  boys,  is  the  cadet  corps  service  they  under- 
go. In  some  places  such  service  is  compulsory,  in  others 
voluntary;  but  everywhere  it  is  almost  universal  among 
boys  of  secondary  schools,  so  firmly  has  the  passion  for 
preparedness  taken  hold  of  the  Swiss  people.  The  re- 
sults of  the  cadet  corps  system  fully  justify  its  existence 
in  Switzerland,  and  speak  louder  than  could  any  words 
in  arguing  for  the  adoption  of  a  similar  plan  in  the 
United  States. 

Along  with  his  physical  training  in  school  the  Swiss 
boy  receives  instructions  in  the  rudiments  of  military 
drill  without  arms.  In  the  cadet  corps  he  takes  military 
drills  with  arms,  in  the  open  field  where  he  can  become 
proficient  in  extended  order  and  light  tactics,  and  learns, 
besides,  to  handle  a  rifle  and  qualify  as  a  marksman. 

Why  are  we  so  timid  about  having  our  boys  taught 
to  stand  at  attention,  to  march,  to  run,  to  align,  to  form 
squads,  to  drill  in  closed  and  open  formation? 

Why  are  we  so  laughingly,  childishly  afraid  to  teach 
our  boys  to  handle  a  rifle,  if  they  volunteer  to  learn? 

131 


How  many  are  there  among  us  who,  when  boys,  did  not 
spend  hours  every  week  playing  soldier? 

Why  not  utilize  this  spirit  of  our  youngsters  for  the 
good  of  our  country? 

Why  not  lead  the  enthusiasm  for  charge  and  self- 
defense,  for  shooting  arrows,  brandishing  wooden 
swords,  shouldering  guns,  into  channels  of  systematic 
training  under  expert  supervision  with  real  weapons? 

Every  boy  likes  a  uniform  because  of  its  attractive- 
ness and,  to  a  certain  extent,  its  democracy.  The  cadet, 
like  the  soldier,  wants  to  be  seen ;  therefore  he  does  not 
confine  his  activity  to  gallery  ranges  and  gyms,  but 
marches  through  the  streets  behind  the  martial  drum. 
He  wants  his  exercise  in  the  field,  he  wants  his  target 
practice  and  to  fight  sham  battles,  and  the  cadet  of  the 
near  future  will  want  to  dig  trenches.  The  cadet  will 
attract  the  boy  standing  on  the  curb,  watching  others 
like  himself  marching  to  the  strains  of  patriotic  music, 
garbed  in  natty  uniforms  and  with  shouldered  guns,  and 
will  be  straightway  filled  with  the  desire  to  join  a  cadet 
corps  himself. 

History  instills  the  root  of  patriotism.  The  descrip- 
tion of  the  deeds  of  our  forefathers,  their  struggles  in 
the  molding  of  the  Union,  their  sense  of  righteousness, 
their  spirit  of  independence  and  liberty,  their  determi- 
nation to  protect  with  the  sword,  if  necessary,  the  in- 
tegrity and  progress  of  the  Nation,  their  zeal  to  build  up 
legislation,  agriculture,  industry  and  commerce  produces 
an  inspiring  effect  in  the  heart  of  the  boy.  The  con- 
viction that  by  the  deeds  of  the  great  men  in  the  life 
of  the  Union  and  by  the  cheerful  support  given  them, 
we  are  enabled  to  enjoy  today  the  citizenship  of  the 
greatest  nation  on  earth,  awakes  admiration,  thankful- 

132 


ness,  and  love  for  the  land  and  its  people — in  other 
words,  creates   patriotism. 

Immediately  the  boy  desires  to  follow  the  example, 
fashion  his  walk  in  life  after  that  of  one  of  the  Nation's 
great  men  who  contributed  to  the  honor  of  the  State. 
An  able-bodied,  physically  strong  man,  with  a  sound  and 
open  mind,  is  the  ideal  citizen.  The  man  who  is  a  use- 
ful servant  to  Uncle  Sam  in  time  of  peace  and  an  ef- 
fective defender  in  time  of  war,  is  a  real  American. 

To  the  schoolboy  who  receives  military  training 
United  States  history  has  a  much  greater  interest  and 
stirs  his  patriotic  impulses  much  more,  than  the  one 
without  a  cadet's  training,  for  whom  history  is  generally 
a  mass  of  dates  and  a  description  of  military  happenings 
he  does  not  understand.  The  whole  War  of  Independ- 
ence from  the  Battle  of  Bunker  Hill  to  the  crowning 
victory  of  Yorktown  is  one  lesson  after  another  for 
our  boys  as  to  the  value  of  military  training.  The  initial 
contest  between  the  British  and  our  minute-men  and 
militia  at  Bunker  Hill  in  itself  bears  the  foundation  for 
a  manual  on  tactics. 

The  historian  tells  us,  that  at  the  council  of  war 
which  decided  upon  the  occupation  of  Bunker  Hill, 
Putnam  said :  "The  Americans  are  never  afraid  of  their 
heads,  they  only  think  of  their  legs;  shelter  them  and 
they  will  fight  forever."  Putnam  expressed  thereby  a 
military  principle,  the  truthfulness  of  which  every  one 
of  our  wars  emphasized  and  which  holds  good  to  our 
present  day. 

When  the  schoolboy  reads  what  a  magnificent  specta- 
cle it  was  for  the  Americans  to  see  3,000  picked  British 
veterans  marching  up  hill  in  solid  columns,  their  bayo- 
nets gleaming,  and  of  Prescott's  order:  "Don't  fire  until 

133 


you  see  the  whites  of  their  eyes/'  as  a  cadet  he  assimi- 
lates and  applies  simple  tactical  problems  and  draws  the 
conclusions : 

1.  It  was  wrong  for  the  English  troops  to  march 
in  closed  formation  when  exposed  to  the  fire  of  an 
enemy. 

2.  The  Americans,  seeing  the  mistake  of  the  enemy, 
kept  cool  and  did  not  bang  away  at  the  on  marching 
Britishers,  but  waited  for  the  command  to  fire,  which 
proves  that  they  were  well-disciplined  troops. 

3.  Prescott  showed  an  officer's  good  judgment  and 
tactical  knowledge  by  giving  the  famous  order,  manifest- 
ing thereby  that  the  fire  is  to  be  used  whenever  it  is 
most  effective  and  a  surprise. 

4.  Prescott's  order  was  short,  clear,  and  to  the  point, 
as  military  orders  have  to  be.  He  did  not  confuse  his 
men  with  figures  as  to  the  distance  they  should  fire  at 
the  enemy,  neither  did  he  distract  the  concentration  of 
the  mind  of  his  men  to  that  sublime  moment  of  firing 
and  surprise,  by  giving  long-winded  advice. 

When  Stark  was  urged  to  quicken  the  step  of  his 
men,  when  they  came  under  artillery  fire  on  the  way 
to  the  breastworks,  he  repHed :  "One  fresh  man  in  action 
is  worth  ten  fatigued  ones,"  teaching  his  fellow  officers 
that  preventing  a  probable  loss  of  his  own  troops  was 
not  as  important  as  to  do  the  greatest  possible  damage  to 
the  enemy. 

Furthermore  we  are  told  that  when  the  English,  with 
fine  pluck,  made  a  third  attack,  the  Americans  found 
their  ammunition  gone  and  were  compelled  to  use  their 
guns  as  clubs,  for  they  had  no  bayonets.  What  was 
the  cause  of  their  shortage  in  ammunition?  More  than 
probably  because  the  Americans  thought  that  they  had 

134 


enough  for  the  emergency.  They  were  not  prepared. 
And  the  lack  of  bayonets  was  also  a  sign  of  un- 
preparedness. 

Whether  it  was  ignorance  as  to  the  necessity  for 
more  powder  and  of  having  bayonets  or  whether  the 
lack  of  material  caused  the  unfortunate  condition,  is  now 
immaterial,  but  it  bears  the  lesson  that:  The  state  of 
unpreparedness  caused  a  battle  conducted  by  excellent 
officers  and  brave  men  to  be  a  defeat  for  the  Americans 
insofar  as  the  British  succeeded  in  taking  Breed's  Hill, 
and  thereby  made  possible  their  remaining  in  Boston. 
The  lesson  of  the  Battle  of  Bunker  Hill  is  only  one  ex- 
ample of  the  manifold  benefits  the  students  of  history 
and  the  schoolboy  can  derive  if  he  is,  by  the  medium 
of  military  training,  able  to  draw  conclusions  valuable 
to  him  personally  and  to  his  beloved  country  in  general. 

In  the  Civil  War  of  1861-65,  the  statistics  of  the  War 
Department  prove  that  less  than  25%  of  those  enlisted 
were  men  of  21  years  of  age  and  over,  that  Boys  won 
that  war  that  made  us  a  united  people.  Of  the  total  en- 
listment of  5,175,320;  681,044  were  men  of  from  22  to 
45  years  of  age  and  over;  2,334,478  were  boys  from  10 
to  18  years  of  age,  and  2,139,798  were  young  men  from 
18  to  22  years  of  age. 

A  good  insight  into  the  workings  of  the  cadet  corps 
system  in  Switzerland  may  be  learned  from  the  rules 
adopted  for  the  corps,  service  in  which  is  compulsory 
for  the  secondary  schoolboys  of  the  town  of  Langnau 
in  the  Canton  of  Bern.  Boys  in  the  elementary  classes 
who  have  reached  the  age  of  eleven  may  join  the  cadet 
corps  in  Langnau,  but  are  not  compelled  to  do  so. 

Only  a  medical  certificate  of  disability  will  suffice 
to  gain  a  boy  dispensation  from  his  three  years'  cadet 

135 


corps  service.  Expenses  incidental  to  a  pupil's  partici- 
pation in  cadet  corps  training  are  borne  by  the  munici- 
palities in  the  event  of  his  being  unable  to  afford  the 
necessary  outlay. 

Instructors  of  the  Langnau  cadet  corps,  as  in  all 
others  in  Switzerland,  are  men  holding  commissions  in 
the  Swiss  army.  A  cadet  corps  commission  recommends 
the  instructors  to  be  appointed,  fixes  their  salaries  and 
adopts  the  cadet  corps  budget. 

General  supervision  of  instruction  and  training  is 
another  duty  of  this  commission,  and  it  also  appoints 
officers  and  non-commissioned  officers  from  the  ranks  of 
the  cadets,  after  consideration  of  a  report  from  the 
school  faculty  on  the  qualification  of  the  boys.  Arms, 
uniforms  and  other  equipment  are  prescribed  by  the 
commission. 

Cadets  are  subject  to  general  rules  of  good  disciplinCc 
Absence  from  instruction,  which  takes  place  between  one 
and  five  o'clock  on  afternoons  when  regular  school 
classes  are  not  in  session,  is  dealt  with  under  the  school 
rules  governing  absence. 

Instructors  are  empowered  to  inflict  disciplinary 
punishment  for  grave  offenses,  but  it  is  provided  that 
such  shall  not  exceed  three  hours'  confinement  in  the 
daytime. 

Applications  to  have  the  cadet  corps  participate  in 
parades  or  other  public  functions  are  passed  on  by  the 
Board  of  Education.  It  is  provided,  however,  that  the 
cadet  corps  shall  never  be  called  out  for  police  duty  or 
any  other  sort  of  service  except  cadet  corps  instruction. 

It  should  gratify  those  opposed  to  military  instruction 
for  its  own  sake  to  know  that  the  official  statement  out- 
lining the  aims  of  the  Langnau  cadet  corps  characterizes 

136 


the  military  organization  of  the  corps  as  a  means,  rather 
than  an  end. 

''Purely  military  aims  remain  in  the  background,'' 
this  prospectus  reads,  ''the  main  purpose  of  the  strict 
discipline  in  vogue  being  to  attain  the  requisite  mobility 
of  so  large  a  body  of  boys." 

"Cadet  corps  training  compliments  the  physical  train- 
ing  received  within  the  schools,'  continues  this  exposition 
of  the  system.  "Its  aims  are  to  give  the  boys  physical 
exercise  in  the  open  air,  the  benefit  of  outdoor  life  in 
general,  develop  their  self-control  and  resoluteness,  and 
imbue  them,  with  the  spirit  of  cooperation.  A  good  ap- 
pearance, correct  posture  and  gentlemanly  deportment  are 
strikingly  visible  results  of  cadets  corps  training." 

The  cadet  corps  consists  of  infantry,  complemented 
by  a  fife  and  a  drum  corps.  The  commission  has  the 
authority  to  add  other  branches,  with  the  consent  of 
the  Board  of  Education,  if  it  be  deemed  advisable. 
Cadets  are  taught  to  comport  themselves  courteously  to- 
ward their  comrades  and  adults,  they  are  expected  to 
present  themselves  for  drill  with  prescribed  equipment 
and  neat  appearance  and  to  obey  their  superiors  promptly 
and  cheerfully.  They  are  permitted  to  wear  their  uni- 
forms at  other  times  then  when  exercising,  but  are 
strictly  forbidden  to  use  their  rifles  or  sabres  outside 
training  hours. 

The  organization  of  cadet  corps  is  modelled  after 
that  of  the  Swiss  Army,  boys  who  have  reached  their 
seventh  school  year  being  eligible  to  be  made  non-com- 
missioned officers,  and  those  in  their  eighth  year  com- 
missioned officers.  A  cadet's  rank  does  not,  however, 
permit  him  to  employ  the  corresponding  military  title 
outside,  nor  are  cadet  officers  authorized  to  impose  any 

137 


punishment  on  their  subordinates.  Violation  of  the  rules 
must  be  reported  by  them  to  the  instructor.  Cadets  do 
not  tender  salute  to  their  superiors  except  while  at  train- 
ing. The  instructors  are  likewise  required  to  investigate 
any  complaints  by  citizens  in  regard  to  the  conduct  of 
cadets. 

For  shooting  exercises  the  cadets  use  a  miniature 
model  of  the  Swiss  Army  rifle.  On  August  20,  191 5, 
the  Military  Department  adopted  a  revised  course  to 
govern  the  shooting  program  of  cadet  corps.  It  consists 
of  preparatory  exercises  and  rifle  shooting  practice. 

Summarized,  it  is  as  follows: 

A.     Preparation. 

a.  Preparatory  physical  exercises,  as  given  in  the  manu- 
al of  physical  training. 

b.  Loading,  aiming  and  firing,  according  to  manual  of 
arms  and  firing  manual. 

c.  Knowledge   of   rifle  necessary  to  its   handling,   use 
and  care. 

If  the  cadet  is  able  to  aim,  and  properly  release 
triggers  he  may  commence  with  the  firing. 

At  least  30  hours  should  be  devoted  to  the  foregoing 
preparatory  exercises. 

B.    Rifle  Shooting. 
Rifle  shooting  comprises: 

a.  Practicing. 

b.  Tests. 

By  practicing  the  cadet  must  gain  confidence  in  him- 
self and  in  his  rifle  so  that  he  may  be  able  to  fulfill 
the  requirements  of  the  tests. 

138 


For  each  firing  class  an  average  of  20  cartridges  pet- 
cadet  shall  be  available  for  practicing,  of  which  at  least 
15  should  be  used  by  every  boy. 

A  minimum  of  5  shots  is  to  be  fired  in  prone  position 
with  supported  barrel.  For  support,  pieces  of  sod,  sacks 
with  sand,  may  be  used. 

A  cadet  shall  not  be  permitted  to  take  the  tests  until 
a  good  result  is  to  be  expected.  If  necessary,  practice 
shots  may  be  repeated. 

The  following  tests,  at  5  shots  each,  shall  form  the 
main  shooting  exercises. 


Course  I. 

Exercise. 

Range. 

Target.      Position. 

Score  Minimum. 

I. 
2. 
3- 

100  meters 
100  meters 
200  meters 

A       prone 
A       kneeling 
A       prone   (sup- 
ported barrel) 

Course  II. 

9  points,  4  hits 
9  points,  4  hits 

8  points,  4  hits 

Exercise. 

Range. 

Target.      Position. 

Score  Minimum. 

I. 
2. 

3- 
4. 

200  meters 
200  meters 
200  meters 
300  meters 

A      prone 

A      kneeling 

B      prone 

A       prone   (sup- 

9  points,  4  hits 
9  points,  4  hits 
7  points,  3  hits 

ported  barrel)   9  points,  4  hits 

Good  marksmen  may  shoot  I  (3)  and  II  (4)  prone, 
without  support. 

All  cadets  must  first  pass  Test  I.  If  the  minimum 
score  is  not  obtained  the  test  shall  be  repeated.  In  case 
of  failure  the  second  time,  the  cadet  shall  go  back  to 

139 


the  preparatory  exercises  and  then  to  repetition  of  the 
first  test. 

Only  after  successfully  passing  a  test  shall  the  cadet 
be  permitted  to  try  the  succeding  one.  No  one  shall  be 
permitted  to  any  test  more  than  three  times. 

The  tests  of  Course  II  are  for  the  second  year  and 
only  for  those  boys  who  passed  successfully  the  tests 
of  Course  I,  all  others  must  repeat  tests  of  Course  I. 
Those  that  pass  successfully  the  tests  of  Course  II  may 
shoot  the  tests  for  boys  of  the  "Armed  preparatory 
Course"  (Course  III). 

As  a  rule  no  cadet  shall  shoot  more  than  15  shots 
per  day.  The  scores  of  the  tests  are  to  be  recorded  in 
the  score  card. 

For  the  practice  exercises  only  the  number  of  shots 
need  to  be  recorded. 

The  cadet  corps  system  in  vogue  throughout  Switzer- 
land has  worked  wonders  moulding  the  boys  of  the  na- 
tion into  men,  fit  in  every  respect  to  fight  the  battle  of 
life  successfully,  and  to  fight  successful  battles  for  their 
country,  too,  should  need  arise. 

Such  a  system  is  not  militarism;  it  is  just  the  result 
of  the  hard  common  sense  of  the  people  who  instituted 
it,  a  quality  sadly  lacking  among  the  gentry  who  roll 
their  eyes  in  horror  every  time  it  is  suggested  that 
American  public  schools  set  about  the  business  of  manu- 
facturing red-blooded  manhood  out  of  the  youthful  ma- 
terial placed  in  their  charge. 

Cadet  corps  training  imbues  a  boy  with  a  high  sense 
of  honor,  it  usually  relieves  his  mind  of  the  idea  that 
he  ought  to  be  a  bully  or  a  rowdy,  and  it  develops  his 
body.  It  requires  a  peculiarly  twisted  mentality  to  dis- 
cern harm  in  such  a  program  of  accomplishment  as  that. 

140 


CHAPTER  IX. 

The  Swiss  Cadet  Corps  training  and  Physical  Training  in 
the  Public  Schools  of  the  City  of  Hoboken,  N.  J. — 
"United  States  Public  School  Cadets  First  Regiment, 
Hoboken,   N.  J." 

— By  A.  J.  Demarest,  Superintendent  of  Schools. 

The  wave  of  enthusiasm  for  adequate  preparedness 
which  swept  this  country  during  the  64th  session  of 
Congress  took  a  practical  turn  in  the  City  of  Hoboken 
on  February  29th,  1916,  when  Mayor  Patrick  R.  GrifSn, 
desirous  of  placing  his  City  in  the  first  ranks  of  those 
doing  their  share  toward  national  preparedness,  issued 
a  call  to  two  hundred  representative  citizens  to  assemble 
at  the  City  Hall  for  the  purpose  of  discussing  the  domi- 
nant question  of  national  preparedness. 

The  main  feature  of  that  remarkable  gathering  of 
patriotic  men  was  an  illustrated  lecture  by  Frederick 
A.  Kuenzli  on  ^^Switzerland  prepared  and  at  peace,  a 
model  for  the  United  States/' 

After  picturing  the  democratic  compulsory  service 
which  gives  Switzerland  immunity  against  invasion, 
Mr.  Kuenzli  said,  "Unfortunately,  the  feature  of  the 
Swiss  System  that  has  been  most  generally  dwelt  upon 
in  the  past  is  that  compelling  military  service  from  every 
male  adult  who  is  physically  and  mentally  fit,  and  exact- 
ing a  tax  of  exemption  from  the  unfit.  Because  the 
obligatory  military  service  of  the  Swiss  is  extremely 
short,  when  contrasted  with  that  of  the  great  European 
powers,  and  yet  the  military  efficiency  of  the  Swiss  is 

141 


as  great  or  greater  than  that  of  the  soldier  of  Germany 
or  France,  where  three  consecutive  years  must  be  spent 
in  the  army,  many  people  are  attached  to  it.  But  these 
same  superficial  advocates  of  the  Swiss  System  miss  the 
real  point ;  the  vital  underlying  cause  of  Swiss  efficiency 
escapes  them  when  they  do  not  stop  to  realize  it  depends 
not  on  the  short  periods  of  compulsory  service  in  the 
army,  but  on  the  foundation  that  every  Swiss  boy  re- 
ceives in  the  physical  training  courses  in  the  public 
schools  and  the  military  training  in  school  cadets  corps 
and  preparatory  courses/' 

The  emphasis  with  which  the  lecturer  pointed  out 
the  benefit  of  school  physical  training  and  military  train- 
ing for  the  future  manhood  appealed  to  all  present  at 
the  meeting;  especially,  the  following  points  stood  out 
in  favor  of  the  Swiss  System  of  training  for  boys : 

a.  The  American  Public  School,  the  pillar  of  exist- 
ence of  our  Republic,  the  institution  which  makes  men, 
the  sower  of  patriotism,  must  also  be  the  instrument 
through  which  the  future  citizen  is  trained  to  protect 
the  State  should  necessity  arfse. 

b.  A  sound  mind  can  only  be  developed  to  its  ma- 
turity in  a  sound  body,  therefore  the  education  of  mind 
and  body  should  be  recognized  as  associate  functions  in 
the  school  curriculum,  neither  being  neglected  at  the  cost 
of  the  other. 

c.  Physical  and  Military  Training  make  for  the 
physical  well-being  of  the  boy;  they  implant  obedience 
and  discipline,  and  they  prepare  the  boy  so  that  he  be- 
comes an  able  defender  of  the  Stars  and  Stripes. 

d.  The  school  cadet  corps  training  has  a  demo- 
cratizing influence  in  that  any  boy  can  become  a  cadet 

142 


because  the  equipment  and  instruction  are  furnished 
gratis.  Private  cadet  corps  are  generally  an  expensive 
matter  and  therefore  open  only  to  sons  of  well-to-do 
parents. 

e.  The  supervision  of  the  cadet  corps  is  in  the  hands 
of  the  public  authorities.  The  same  people  we  choose 
to  guide  and  guard  the  mental  welfare  of  our  boys  are 
the  proper  persons  to  make  provision  for  such  work  as 
will  restrain  hundreds  of  youngsters  who  are  bubbling 
over  with  the  spirit  of  freedom  and  patriotism. 

Mayor  Griffin,  the  City  Commissioners,  the  members 
of  the  Board  of  Education,  and  large  numbers  of  promi- 
nent citizens  were  deeply  impressed  with  the  patriotic 
talk  of  Mr.  Kuenzli;  and  it  remained  for  the  energetic 
Mayor  to  recommend  the  introduction  of  physical  and 
military  training  in  the  public  schools — thus  Hoboken 
was  not  numbered  among  the  cities  that  have  spent  much 
time  in  discussing  preparedness  and  letting  it  go  at  that. 
But,  on  the  contrary,  Hoboken  took  the  lead  and,  for 
this,  much  credit  is  due  to  the  Mayor,  the  City  Commis- 
sioners, and  the  members  of  the  Board  of  Education. 

This  action  of  the  city  authorities  was  backed  by  a 
healthy  public  sentiment,  and  a  resolution  appropriating 
$5 ,000  to  equip  and  instruct  a  cadet  corps,  and  to  insti- 
tute in  the  public  schools  of  the  city  compulsory  physical 
training  for  all  boys  and  girls  from  the  second  year 
through  the  high  school  grades,  was  introduced  and 
passed  by  the  Board  of  Commissioners. 

The  Board  of  Education  took  up  the  project  at  once 
and  a  decision  was  reached  to  establish  physical  training 
courses  to  begin  with  the  opening  of  school  in  the  Fall 
term,  but  to  organize  a  cadet  corps  of  five  hundred  boys 
immediately. 

143 


An  illustration  of  the  spirit  that  animated  the  mem- 
bers of  the  Board  of  Education  we  find  in  the  address 
in  which  President  James  P.  Laverty  outlined  the  pro- 
gram.   Mr.  Laverty  said: 

"Fidelity  to  public  duty  requires  mental  education 
and  physical  development  of  the  youth.  We  seek  to 
progress  the  mind,  but  we  neglect  the  advancement  of 
the  physique  of  the  child  at  school. 

"Compulsory  physical  training  should  be  included  in 
the  course  of  study  in  the  schools  of  Hoboken.  Bodily 
discipline  in  early  life  is  an  important  factor  in  the  de- 
velopment of  the  sturdy  man  or  woman  who  is  to  fight 
life's  battles. 

"It  is  suggested  that  in  each  primary  grammar  school 
one-half  hour  (two  fifteen-minute  periods)  in  each 
school-day  be  allotted  for  physical  exercises  by  the  pupils ; 
progressive  calisthenic  instruction  will  develop  muscles 
which  otherwise  would  remain  latent,  would  make  for 
strong,  agile  boys  and  girls,  respect  for  the  laws  of 
health,  stir  the  blood  in  the  veins,  bring  a  glow  to  the 
cheeks  and  awaken  energy.  Bright  minded  pupils  would 
abound  in  this  school  district. 

"Organize  classes  of  instruction  along  military  lines 
for  both  boys  and  girls  for  the  purpose  of  promoting  a 
proper  personal  bearing,  a  bodily  uplift,  and  an  ease  of 
movement  and  self-confidence. 

"Drill  both  the  boys  and  girls,  instruct  them  in  disci- 
pline and  control ;  give  them  a  keen  regard  for  authority, 
responsive  to  obedience.;  inculcate  a  respect  for  each 
other ;  a  loyalty  to  their  City,  State,  and  Country. 

"Give  to  the  girls  a  special  course  in  'first-aid  work,' 
inspire  them  to  work  quickly  and  efficiently  when  a 
public  occasion  demands  intense  action. 

144 


"Give  to  the  boys  complete  instruction  in  manual  of 
arms,  frequent  drilling  and  marching,  full  routine  of 
army  life  and  practice.  Arouse  an  abiding  faith  and 
loyalty  in  America  and  its  institutions,  making  for  the 
highest  degree  of  citizenship,  not  necessarily  confirmed 
in  the  dogma  of  militarism. 

"Physical  and  military  training  will  result  in  grace- 
fully strong  and  mentally  healthy,  alert  boys  and  girls, 
who  will  walk  with  shoulders  erect  and  correct  poise  and 
carriage  which  will  command  attention  and  approval.'' 

As  provided  in  the  resolution  adopted  by  the  Mayor 
and  Commissioners,  a  Cadet  Corps  known  as  "The  United 
States  Public  School  Cadets,  First  Regiment,  Hoboken, 
New  Jersey,''  was  organized  at  a  meeting  of  the  Board 
of  Education  held  on  March  27th,  1916. 

Five  hundred  boys  representing  all  the  grammar  and 
high  school  grades  were  enlisted  after  having  presented 
notes  from  the  parents  who  expressed  hearty  approval 
of  the  plan  and  gave  assurances  of  their  desire  to  co- 
operate with  the  school  authorities  in  the  first  steps  to- 
ward military  training  in  the  public  schools. 

Officers  of  the  National  Guard  were  secured  to  in- 
struct the  several  groups  of  cadets,  the  boys  of  two 
different  schools  meeting  at  one  centre,  under  one  in- 
structor. Regular  drills  were  held  three  times  each 
week  for  45-minute  periods  after  the  close  of  school. 
At  the  end  of  one  month's  drilling  in  this  way,  the 
cadets  reported  at  the  Armory  in  the  City  Hall  where 
the  Head  Drill-Master  met  the  several  groups  and  there 
was  given  the  first  inspection  drill.  It  is  needless  to  say 
that  there  was  much  enthusiasm  shown  and  no  little 
rivalry  for  honors  for  the  separate  groups.  The  citizens 
were  given  an  opportunity  at  this  time  to  witness  an 

14s 


inspiring  and  stirring  scene.  And  at  this  inspection  drill 
the  Cadet  Corps  and  Military  Training  were  given  the 
seal  of  approval  by  the  people  of  Hoboken. 

The  boys  drilled  in  uniforms  consisting  of  leggings, 
coat,  trousers,  cap,  cap  ornament,  and  gun  furnished  by 
the  Board  of  Education  at  a  cost  of  $3.15  for  the  suit 
and  $3.00  for  the  gun.  The  total  cost  of  instruction  for 
a  period  covering  from  March  15,  19 16,  to  October  i, 
1916,  was  $1,046.13.  The  Head  Drill-Master  receiving 
a  salary  of  $1,200  per  year;  and  the  Assistant  Drill- 
Master  an  annual  salary  of  $500.  During  the  organi- 
zation of  the  corps  six  assistants,  members  of  the  Na- 
tional Guard  were  employed  at  the  rate  of  $1  per  drill. 

The  Cadets  had  a  prominent  place  in  the  Municipal 
Parade  held  on  May  30th,  1916,  and  again  gave  cause 
to  the  citizens  to  realize  that  the  introduction  of  Military 
Training  was  a  step  in  advance  in  the  educational  scheme 
of  our  country. 

At  the  opening  of  schools  in  September  1916,  weekly 
drills  for  the  Cadets  were  inaugurated — so  that  once 
each  week,  the  boys  report  at  school  in  uniform  and  at 
dismissal  of  school  assemble  for  instruction  under  the 
Drill-Master.  We  find  a  continued  enthusiasm  among 
the  boys  and,  in  consequence,  have  no  difficulty  in  filling 
the  ranks  of  cadets  who  graduated  from  school  or  those 
who  move  from  the  City.  In  fact,  it  has  been  necessary 
for  us  to  arrange  a  waiting  list  of  boys  eligible  for  the 
Cadet  Corps.  This  plan  does  not  apply  to  the  High 
School  where  every  boy  enrolled  in  the  school  assembles 
for  military  drill  one  day  each  week. 

That  much  about  the  First  Regiment  of  United 
States  PubHc  School  Cadets. 

146 


,^-^^'J%' 


Swiss  Infantry  on  Skis. 


One  of  the  interesting  sections  of  the  Rh^:tian  Railwae  in 
THE  Canton  of  the  Grisons. 


Infantry  Company  ready  for  Inspection. 


Artillery  Staff  Directing  Gun  Fire. 


What  the  public  at  large  thought  of  it  as  a  contri- 
bution to  our  country's  preparedness,  the  following  edi- 
torials of  the  "Hudson  Observer"  may  show: 

HOBOKEN  LEADS  THE  WAY. 

"To-morrow's  Memorial  Day  Parade  in  Hoboken  will 
be  of  more  than  usual  interest  because  of  the  fact  that  it 
will  mark  the  initial  public  appearance  of  the  First  Regi- 
ment, Public  School  Cadets  of  America.  While  the  spirit 
of  preparedness  has  been  agitated  all  over  the  country, 
Hoboken  was  the  first  municipality  to  do  something  else 
besides  discuss  the  question  and  quickly  adopted  the 
plan  of  compulsory  military  training  in  the  public  schools 
by  organizing  a  regiment  of  cadets  among  the  boys  of 
the  public  schools. 

"As  has  been  told  in  these  columns,  a  regiment  of  the 
boys  has  been  formed,  provided  with  uniforms  and  fully 
equipped,  has  undergone  quite  some  training,  under  the 
direction  of  competent  drillmasters,  and  will  march  to- 
morrow for  the  first  time  in  a  public  parade.  It  has 
not  only  instilled  a  deeper  feeling  of  patriotism  in  the 
boys  themselves,  but  the  feeling  has  extended  to  the 
parents  and  relatives  of  the  youngsters  who  will  line  the 
sidewalks  of  the  streets  through  which  the  parade  will 
pass  to-morrow  to  cheer  and  encourage  them.  Not  only 
will  Hoboken  people  turn  out  in  force  to  view  the  pro- 
cession, but  it  is  anticipated  that  thousands  of  people 
from  neighboring  municipalities  will  be  present  to  wit- 
ness the  showing  made  by  the  youngsters  who  are  now 
being  prepared  to  defend  Old  Glory  should  such  an 
occasion  arise  in  the  future. 

"That  the  First  Regiment  of  Public  School  Cadets 
will  win   favor  to-morrow  and  share  honors  with  the 

147 


gallant  remnant  of  the  heroes  who  fought  for  the  flag 
during  the  Rebellion  is  assured.  It  will  be  a  great  day 
for  Hoboken,  and  Hobokenites  will  have  every  reason 
to  feel  proud  of  the  fact  that  the  Mile  Square  City  is 
the  first  to  show  by  actual  work  that  they  are  in  favor 
of  preparedness." 


MEMORIAL  DAY  IN  HOBOKEN. 

"The  residents  of  Hoboken  have  occasion  to  feel 
proud  of  the  Memorial  Day  observance.  The  parade  was 
the  best  ever  held  in  the  city,  with  the  possible  exception 
of  the  parade  at  the  unveiling  of  the  monument  erected 
to  the  soldiers  and  sailors  who  gave  up  their  lives  in 
defense  of  the  Union.  The  veterans  of  the  Civil  War 
in  the  line  were  few,  only  seventeen  of  the  hundreds 
of  gallant  men  who  enlisted  from  Hoboken  being  physic- 
ally able  to  participate,  but  the  same  spirit  that  actuated 
the  veterans  to  offer  their  services  to  their  country  in 
the  early  sixties  moved  the  men  and  youths  who  marched 
so  proudly  on  Tuesday  under  the  national  colors.  They, 
too,  will  answer  the  call  to  battle  for  the  preservation 
of  the  nation.  The  appearance  of  the  First  Regiment 
of  United  States  Public  School  Cadets,  and  to  Hoboken 
belongs  the  honor  as  the  first  city  in  which  they  have 
been  organized,  was  an  agreeable  surprise.  Although 
this  regiment  was  only  recently  formed,  the  boys  showed 
the  deep  interest  they  have  taken  in  the  preparedness 
policy,  for  they  have  made  splendid  progress  in  training. 
They  marched  and  drilled  like  old  soldiers  and  merited 
the  hearty  applause  showered  upon  them  by  the  enthusi- 
astic spectators  along  the  line  who  must  have  been  con- 
vinced that  if  the  United  States  should  be  unfortunately 

148 


involved  in  war  Hoboken  will  be  ready  to  supply  its 
quota  or  more  of  brave  young  men  to  fight  for  the 
old  flag. 

"Mayor  Griffin  and  the  Commissioners  were  highly 
pleased  at  the  splendid  showing  made  on  Decoration 
Day." 

—Hudson  Observer,  June  i,  1916. 

In  connection  with  military  drills  for  boys,  I  want 
to  add  a  few  words  about  the  adoption  of  compulsory 
physical  training  for  all  boys  and  girls  eight  years  of 
age  and  above.  And  I  must  confess  that  this  part  of 
preparedness  in  schools  promised  more  difficulties  than 
did  the  cadet  corps. 

To  enact  the  Swiss  System  with  the  open-air  exer- 
cises, gymnastics  on  apparatus  and  instruction  by  male 
teachers,  was  impossible  for  the  simple  reason  that  we 
had  no  playgrounds  for  a  majority  of  the  schools;  that 
of  our  three  hundred  teachers  hardly  two  dozen  were 
males  and  few  of  these  able  to  instruct  in  physical  train- 
ing. But  the  thing  had  to  be  started.  I  therefore  pro- 
posed to  the  exponents  of  the  Swiss  System  and  to  the 
then  appointed  Director  of  Physical  Training  to  outline 
a  program  of  instruction,  beginning  with  simple  exer- 
cises for  the  schoolroom,  and  to  be  demonstrated  by 
every  class-teacher. 

I  proposed  that  for  one  week  before  the  opening  of 
School  after  the  summer  holiday,  the  teachers  receive 
instruction  for  one  hour  each  day  so  that  they  in  turn 
would  be  made  efficient  for  the  teaching  of  this  work 
to  their  classes.  I  suggested  that  these  simple  physical 
exercises  be  given  fifteen  minutes  each  day;  and  that 
the  physical  instructor  present  each  new  lesson  to  the 

149 


teachers  so  that,  in  a  short  time,  a  complete  course 
would  have  been  given  and  the  work  systematically 
presented.  This  was  followed  out  by  the  school  authori- 
ties and,  with  very  few  exceptions,  the  teachers  re- 
sponded wonderfully  to  the  new  work.  Of  course  tables 
prepared  according  to  the  Manual  of  Physical  Training 
by  Kuenzli  and  Panzer  are  a  great  help  to  the  teacher. 

The  Director  of  Physical  Training  acts  in  a  super- 
visory capacity,  instructs  classes  of  older  boys,  and  de- 
monstrates instruction  to  the  teaching  staff.  It  is  our 
plan  to  install  stationary  apparatus  in  all  available 
school  yards  and  then,  by  the  Spring  of  191 7,  we  shall 
be  able  to  begin  the  regular  gymnastic  classes  as  provided 
in  the  Swiss  System. 

Contrary  to  my  anticipations,  I  am  pleased  to  state 
that  in  the  introduction  of  physical  training  we  did  not 
meet  with  the  difficulties  which  we  felt  justified  under 
the  circumstances  to  expect.  Our  physical  director,  a 
young  man,  is  intensely  interested  in  his  work;  he  is 
popular  with  the  teachers  and  is  ambitious  to  make  his 
work  an  unqualified  success.  The  parents  and  pupils 
are  interested  because  they  are  beginning  to  see  the  real 
benefits  of  work  which  has  for  its  object  the  better 
physical  development  of  our  boys  and  girls.  And  the 
teachers  are  enthusiastic  in  the  introduction  of  a  real 
work  for  which  there  has  been  a  long-felt  want  in  the 
curriculum  of  our  public  schools. 

I  am  confident  that  the  subject  of  physical  training 
has  passed  through  the  experimental  stage  in  this  City 
and  that  today  we  have  a  better  discipline  in  our  schools ; 
and  a  more  healthful  spirit  for  service  which  comes 
with  a  healthy  mind  in  a  healthy  body. 


150 


CHAPTER  X. 

Troops  with  strongest  nerves  will  triumph. — Necessity  of  hard- 
ening body.— Suggestions  as  to  the  establishment  of  a  Federal 
system  of  compulsory  physical  training. 

Someone  said  that  the  troops  which  had  the  strong- 
est nerves  would  finally  triumph  over  their  adversaries 
in  the  European  War.  More  than  a  little  truth  was 
contained  in  that  assertion.  The  stupendousness  of  the 
struggle,  the  strain  and  rack  to  which  both  body  and 
mind  in  such  a  conflict  are  subjected,  require  nerves  to 
be  of  steel  if  they  are  not  to  snap. 

It  should  be  evident  to  all  who  have  interested  them- 
selves in  the  subject  that  successful  warfare  is  becoming 
as  much,  if  not  more,  a  matter  of  ability  to  withstand 
the  mental  pressure  entailed  by  days  upon  days  in  the 
trenches,  where  one  is  deafened  by  horrific  and  unending 
noises,  and  the  ability  of  the  body  to  hold  up  under 
hardships,  fatigue,  exposure  and  ill-nourishment,  as  it 
is  of  the  individual  soldier  being  well-drilled  and  a  com- 
petent marksman.  That  ability  of  soldiers'  mind  and 
body  to  withstand  such  devitalizing  forces  is  likely  to 
be  the  determining  factor  in  the  future  warfare. 

None  will  question  the  statement  that,  with  few  ex- 
ceptions, the  adult  who  possesses  a  sound  constitution, 
hardened  body  and  steady  nerves  is  he  who  either  lived 
an  outdoor  life  or  underwent  some  sort  of  physical  train- 
ing as  a  boy.  Seldom  does  the  weakling  in  youth  develop 
into  the  athlete  in  manhood.    The  nervous  system  of  a 

151 


human  being  is  so  closely  related  to,  and  its  usefulness 
so  dependent  upon  the  soundness  of  the  body's  parts  and 
organs ;  that  the  more  harmoniously  developed  and  hard- 
ened the  body  of  a  soldier  is,  the  greater  his  chances  of 
retaining  his  efficiency  through  the  nerve-racking  hours 
on  the  battlefield. 

Your  soldier  of  the  future,  then,  must  be  a  man  of 
iron.  The  foundation  must  be  laid  in  early  youth.  It 
is  futile  to  try  to  bend  the  full-grown  tree.  Strong 
nerves,  athletic  body,  subjection  to  discipline  and  the  zeal 
to  cooperate  with  his  fellows  for  the  good  of  the  re- 
public are  all  attributes  implanted  during  the  physical 
training  exercises  of  the  Swiss  public  schools. 

Start  now  to  give  American  boys,  from  the  age  of 
eight  until  they  leave  school,  a  systematic  course  of 
physical  training,  uniform  throughout  the  country ;  or- 
ganize cadet  corps  for  the  older  boys  wherein  they  can 
get  the  benefit  of  the  exercise  in  the  open,  learn  the 
rudiments  of  military  drill  and  become  proficient  with 
the  rifle;  crown  it  all  with  a  few  weeks  of  universal 
military  training  in  their  19th,  20th  and  21st  years,  and 
America  will  be  saved  both  from  the  perils  to  which 
her  present  non-preparedness  exposes  her,  and  the  evils 
of  militarism  that  would  follow  the  establishment  of  a 
large  standing  army — the  only  alternative. 

The  purpose  of  the  present  chapter  is  to  explain  by 
what  methods  the  first  step  in  this  program — adoption 
of  a  uniform,  compulsory  system  of  physical  training, 
throughout  all  the  States — can  be  successfully  under- 
taken. 

The  States,  themselves,  must  be  looked  to  for  enact- 
ment of  legislation  compelling  physical  instruction  to  be 
made  a  part  of  the  public  school  curriculum.    New  York 

152 


State  has  already  blazed  the  trail  in  the  Welsh-Slater 
acts  rendering  physical  training  for  all  pupils  in  schools, 
and  military  training  for  boys,  between  i6  and  19  years 
old,  who  are  in  school,  compulsory.  The  New  York 
law  takes  the  Swiss  system  as  a  model,  this  course  being 
adopted  after  a  most  exhaustive  inquiry  by  the  legis- 
lature committees  charged  with  investigating  every  phase 
of  the  project. 

The  danger  is  in  the  chance  that  various  States,  once 
convinced  that  some  system  of  physical  training  is  ad- 
visable, may  jeopardize  complete  success  by  the  adoption 
of  widely-differing  systems,  preventing  uniformity  and 
creating  a  hodge-podge  that  will  surely  detract  from  the 
efficiency  of  the  general  result.  In  this  particular,  Swit- 
zerland with  her  more  centralized  government,  has  an 
advantage  over  the  United  States.  The  twenty-one 
Swiss  Cantons  have  no  choice  but  to  train  the  boys  in 
their  public  schools  strictly  according  to  the  one  manual 
of  physical  instruction  authorized  by  the  Federal  Gov- 
ernment. 

The  United  States  government,  while  it  has  not  the 
power  to  compel  the  States  to  adopt  a  uniform  system, 
or  any  system  at  all  for  that  matter,  for  use  in  the  public 
schools,  can  immeasurably  assist  bringing  such  a  com- 
munication to  pass.  The  adoption  by  the  national  gov- 
ernment of  a  model  system  of  physical  training  and  a 
plan  for  the  organization  of  cadet  corps,  coupled  with 
the  provision  that  the  government  bear  a  proportion  of 
the  cost  of  equipment  and  instruction,  in  much  the  same 
manner  as  it  furnishes  arms  and  uniforms  to  the  Nation- 
al Guards  of  the  States,  would  work  wonders  in  bringing 
State  legislatures  and  school  authorities  to  look  at  the 
thing  in  a  reasonable  light. 

153 


13.000  HEAR  PLEAS 


Ball 


ast 


Military  Training,  for  All  Chil- 
dren Advocated  at  Huge 
Mass  Meeting. 


MILITIA    LEADERS    SPEAK 


Former   Lieutenant  Shows  Contrast 

of  Mobilization  in  Switzedand 

and  United  States. 


More  than  3,000  persons,  a  gathering 
that  filled  the  state  armory  drill  shed 
almost  to  capacity,  last  night  heard 
speakers  laaid  the  Swiss  military  pre- 
paredness plan  as  the  most  pi'actlcal 
and  efficient  for  the  United  States,  and 
urge  its  adoption  in  New  York  stale 
through  the  passage  of  the  bill  of  As^ 
fsemblyman  Clarence  F.  "Welsh,  which 
calls  for  training  in  th«  schools,  pre- 
paratory to  forming-  a  lAllitary  defense. 
Assemblyman  Welsh^  Major  General 
John  P.  O'Byan,  commanding  the  New 
York  state  national  guard;  Brigadier 
General  LfOUls  W.  Stotesbury,  adjutant 
general,  and  Frederick  W.  Kuenzli, 
formerly  a  lieutenant  in  the  Swiss 
army,  declared  training  should  be  made 
obligatory    upoii    school    children,    and 


Report  of  the  "Knickerbocker  Press,"  Albany,  N.  Y.,  of  March  30, 1916,  on  the 

mass-meeting  in  favor  of  the  Welsh-Slater  bills  for  Physical  Training 

and  Military  Training  in  the  schools  of  the  State  of  New  York. 


Above  all  else,  military  training  of  boys,  both  without 
arms  in  school  and  with  arms  in  cadet  corps,  should  be 
not  only  uniform  throughout  the  nation,  but  should  be 
taken  from  the  "Infantry  Drill  Regulations  of  the  U.  S. 
Army,"  if  the  purpose  of  such  training  is  to  be  to  so  edu- 
cate the  boy  that  he  will  need  only  a  short  period  of 
service  as  an  adult  to  be  rounded  into  shape  as  a  first- 
rate  soldier.  Who  does  not  remember  the  weary  days 
following  the  Declaration  of  War  in  1898  spent  in  drill- 
ing the  thousands  of  utterly  raw  recruits  who  volun- 
teered to  fight  the  Spaniards?  It  is  doubtful  if  the  most 
of  them  were  in  condition  to  go  to  the  front,  had  they 
been  needed,  by  the  time  peace  was  concluded. 

But  had  those  same  volunteers  been  men  who,  in 
their  boyhood,  had  been  taught  to  march,  face,  align, 
deploy  and  reconnoitre,  and  made  familiar  with  the 
manual  of  arms,  can  anyone  doubt  transforming  them 
into  soldiers  would  have  been  comparatively  simple? 

Physical  instruction  in  American  public  schools,  as 
in  Switzerland,  should  be  given  by  public  school  teachers, 
and,  to  attain  the  best  results,  the  course  teachers  would 
undergo  to  qualify  for  such  work  should  be  specifically 
laid  down  by  the  national  government.  The  receiving 
of  governmental  aid  could  be  made  contingent  upon  a 
State  authorizing  such  teachers  only  as  had  qualified  as 
such  to  become  instructors  of  physical  training. 

The  salient  points  of  a  system  of  physical  training 
for  boys,  with  which  each  State  in  the  Union  could  be 
asked  to  comply  are : 

I.  Establishment  as  part  of  the  school  curriculum 
for  boys  from  the  age  of  eight  onward,  of  compulsory 
physical  training,  with  qualified  school-teachers  as  the 

155 


instructors,   and  under  the  supervision   of  the  regular 
educational  authorities. 

2.  The  division  of  physical  training  into  three 
courses,  scientifically  determined  according  to  the  ages 
of  the  pupils,  so  as  not  to  overtax  their  strength,  but 
rather  to  progress  gradually  in  the  exercises.  Games 
and  free  exercises  should  largely  feature  the  instruction 
given  to  the  boys  in  the  first  course,  the  formal  and 
more  arduous  exercises  being  for  the  older  boys.  The 
first  course  should  end  when  the  boy  reaches  the  age 
of  ten  and  the  second  when  he  is  thirteen,  while  he 
would  continue  the  third  course  until  he  finished  school. 

3.  Encouragement  of  all  pupils  to  work  together, 
by  training  them  in  classes,  so  that  the  weaker  are  spurred 
on  the  greater  achievement  and  the  stronger  held  back 
from  overexertion.  It  is  always  the  ability  of  the  aver- 
age of  the  mass  that  determines  the  efficiency  of  an  army. 
"The  strength  of  the  wolf  is  the  pack,  but  the  strength 
of  the  pack  is  the  wolf,''  as  Kipling  puts  it.  Working 
in  cooperation  always  stimulates  obedience  and  promotes 
discipline. 

4.  Even  in  athletic  exercises  the  competition  should 
be  largely  between  classes  or  teams  of  boys,  rather  than 
between  individuals. 

5.  "Hikes"  and  marching  exercises  are  sorely  needed, 
as  the  failure  of  many  National  Guard  units  to  come  up 
to  the  standard  in  this  particular,  proves.  But  such 
marching  should  be  in  close  order,  and  not  consist  of 
straggling  groups.  Thus  would  the  poor  walker  be  en- 
couraged to  greater  effort.  Endurance,  alertness,  and 
cultivation  of  a  love  for  nature,  as  well  as  ability  in 
marching   and   discipline   are    results    of   properly   con- 

156 


ducted  "hikes."    Singing  in  chorus  can  be  made  a  pleas- 
ure feature  of  marching. 

6.  Physical  training  courses  should  cover  the  entire 
school  year,  and  there  should  be  at  least  two  hours' 
training  for  each  class  a  week. 

7.  States  should  provide  for  a  drill  and  playground 
near  every  public  schoolhouse. 

8.  Requisite  stationary  apparatus  for  instruction  in 
physical  training  should  be  installed  in  every  public 
school  yard. 

9.  The  War  Department  should  provide  for  in- 
spectors who  would  see  to  it  that  States  receiving  Gov- 
ernment support  are  conformed  to  the  prescribed  pro- 
gram of  physical  training. 

10.  The  State  authorities  should  be  required  to  re- 
port, at  least  every  two  years,  to  the  War  Department, 
on  the  conduct  and  progress  of  the  training  and  the  con- 
dition of  grounds  and  apparatus. 

11.  Instructions  for  teachers  of  physical  training 
should  be  given  in  State  Normal  Schools  and  teachers' 
colleges.  In  such  schools  physical  training  should  be  an 
obligatory  subject  for  at  least  three  hours  per  week,  and 
also  obligatory  for  a  State  teacher's  certificate. 

12.  The  War  Department  should  provide  special 
summer  courses  annually  for  physical  training  teachers. 


157 


CHAPTER   XI. 

After  the  war— what  ?— The  world  will  both  hate  and  envy  Amer- 
ica.—Lesson  of  the  Deutschland  and  U-53.— Building  battle- 
s^hips  with  no  men  for  the  crews. — Failure  of  army  recruiting. — 
National  Guard  not  up  to  expectation. — ^Our  only  hope  is 
universal  training. — State's  sovereign  right  to  preserve  itself. — 
Permanent  world  peace  an  idle  dream. — Shall  our  foes  find 
us  weak? 

What  does  America  intend  to  do  against  the  time 
when,  the  European  war  ended,  she  will  find  herself 
equally  the  object  of  Europe's  envy  and  Europe's 
hatred?  And  if  fancied  security  is  conceived  in  the 
exhaustion  of  Europe  after  the  war,  what  say  you  of 
the  more  bitter  hatred  and  deeper  envy  of  Asia,  not 
weakened,  not  exhausted,  but  everlastingly  prepared  to 
strike  ? 

The  common  saying  that  "the  world  is  a  small  place, 
after  all"  was  strikingly  emphasized  when  the  feats  of 
the  German  submarines  Deutschland  and  U-53  demon- 
strated that  America's  hopes  of  immunity  from  attack 
because  of  her  isolation  were  unfounded.  If  the  U-53, 
could  sink  enemy  merchant  vessels  barely  outside  the 
three-mile  territorial  limit  of  the  United  States,  what 
would  hinder  some  other  U-boat  or  fleet  of  U-boats 
crossing  the  Atlantic  and  torpedoing  American  warships  ? 
And  if  the  Atlantic  can  be  traversed  by  submarines,  so 
can  the  Pacific. 

The  answer  is  that  we  must  build  a  navy  so  powerful 
with  provision  for  defense  against  submarine  attack, 
that  the  danger  will  be  eliminated.     Congress  has  pro- 

158 


vided  for  a  great  navy,  you  say.  Has  it  done  so,  ajl 
things  considered?  Ships,  yes;  but  how  about  the  men 
to  man  the  ships?  When  the  superdreadnaught  Arizona 
went  into  commission  October  i6,  191 6,  it  was  necessary 
to  almost  deplete  the  crews  of  the  comparatively  new 
superdreadnaughts  Kansas,  Vermont  and  New  Hamp- 
shire to  man  the  Arizona.  The  other  three  vessels  neces- 
sarily went  into  the  reserve,  as  useless  to  the  nation  in 
time  of  sudden  need  as  though  they  were  birch  bark 
canoes. 

Turn  to  the  army!  The  last  Congress  provided  for 
increasing  the  force  of  regulars  by  about  35,000  men. 
Recruiting  stations  were  opened,  premiums  of  $5.00  were 
offered  for  persuading  men  to  enlist,  every  conceivable 
inducement  was  offered  to  able-bodied  men  to  join  the 
army.  What  came  of  it?  The  army  is  no  larger  than 
it  was  before.  Out  of  one  hundred  million  people  there 
could  not  be  found  35,000  men  who  would  come  for- 
ward to  comply  with  their  country's  request  for  what 
would  be  at  best  a  very  insufficient  first  line  of  defense. 

With  no  men  to  man  our  ships,  with  it  already 
proven  impossible  to  raise  the  army  strength  through 
voluntary  enlistment,  and  with  the  National  Guard  hold- 
ing out  no  longer  any  attraction  to  the  youth  of  the 
country,  who  will  be  at  the  triggers  to  repel  an  invading 
foe  when  our  hour  strikes? 

There  will  be  no  one  unless  we  resolve  now  to  adopt 
a  system  of  military  training — universal  and  compulsory 
that  will  give  us  in  time  a  reserve  of  millions  of  men, 
pursuing  each  his  ordinary  vocation  in  life,  not  merely 
willing,  but  able  to  fall  into  line,  shoulder  a  gun  and 
become  at  a  minute's  notice  a  unit  in  the  most  splendid 
army  of  defense  the  world  has  ever  known. 

159 


Of  what  avail  that  the  great  majority  of  American 
men  would  respond  to  a  call  for  volunteers  in  time  of 
need?  Of  what  use  would  they  be  if  they  were  un- 
trained ?  One  might  as  well  try  to  take  out  an  insurance 
policy  after  one's  house  had  caught  afire,  as  to  begin 
training  to  be  soldiers  after  a  foreign  foe  had  declared 
war  and  had  launched  an  attacking  force  against  us. 

There  are  probably  but  few  citizens,  able  to  go  to 
war,  who  would  not  volunteer  in  time  of  pressing  national 
peril.  Any  who  hesitated  to  do  so  would  not  deserve 
the  name  of  citizens.  But  the  fact  is,  we  are  facing  real 
peril  right  now.  The  trouble  is  that  not  enough  of  us 
realize  it  to  impel  us  to  prepare  to  meet  it.  Self-preser- 
vation, therefore,  demands  that  the  RepubUc,  exercising 
its  sovereign  right  and  will  and  wisdom,  step  in  and  com- 
pel us  to  so  fit  ourselves  that  we  will  be  able  to  defend 
our  cherished  homes  and  loved  ones. 

Those  of  us  who  cannot  see  a  dangerous  lack  of 
preparedness  in  our  Volunteer  System  should  consent  to 
Universal  Training  and  Service  for  the  wonderful  im- 
provement it  would  have  on  health,  vigor  and  vitality 
of  our  entire  Nation. 

What  "The  World"  says  editorially  of  the  National 
Guard  Service  at  the  border,  is  an  observation  made 
generally  of  boys  who  train  for  the  sake  of  their  country : 

"SOLDIERING    FOR    SELF-IMPROVEMENT. 

"Nothing  was  more  observed  in  the  guardsmen  of 
the  returning  Seventh,  as  in  those  of  the  Seventy-First, 
the  Fourteenth  and  other  commands  in  other  places,  than 
their  abounding  physical  health,  their  vigor  and  self- 
confidence. 

i6o 


"The  men  on  the  border  have  endured  the  mid- 
summer heat  of  a  trying  dimate  with  much  of  the  labor 
and  some  of  the  hardships  of  actual  warfare.  Their 
gain  in  health  and  strength  in  such  conditions  testifies 
to  the  value  of  discipline  and  of  ordered,  balanced  ex- 
ercise out. of  doors  under  expert  instruction. 

"If  the  World  should  ever  become  a  convert  to  con- 
scription, it  would  not  be  from  fear  of  the  Japanese 
toasting  in  sake  the  fall  of  San  Francisco  or  of  German 
guns  trimming  down  the  Woolworth  Building. 

"It  would  be  because  training  might  instill  into  the 
unlicked  American  cub  the  instinct  of  solidarity,  the  habit 
of  discipline  and  the  physical  well-being  of  systematic 
exercise. 

"Universal  military  service  appeals  to  its  most  ra- 
tional supporters  not  because  it  is  military  but  because 
it  is  universal  and  because  it  is  service." 

Enough  credit  can  hardly  be  given  to  President 
Woodrow  Wilson  for  keeping  the  National  Guard  in 
training  at  the  border.  The  six  months  of  service  netted 
Uncle  Sam  150,000  additional  men  fit  to  take  the  field 
in  any  emergency.  But  the  mobilization  and  border 
service  of  the  Guard  opened  also  the  eyes  of  our  citizens 
as  to  the  absolute  necessity  to  abolish  our  present  Na- 
tional Military  system. 

The  dual  harness  of  State  and  Federal  organization, 
oath  and  allegiance  seems  to  be  rather  a  setback  than 
an  improvement  of  the  efficiency  of  the  National  Guard 
if  the  refusal  of  40,000  guardsmen  to  take  the  Federal 
oath,  and  the  great  number  of  them  refusing  to  reinlist 
is  any  sign  of  the  true  state  of  affairs. 

It  is  idle  to  talk  of  permanent  world  peace,  of  dis- 
armament,   of    universal    arbitration     after    the    great 

161 


struggle  in  Europe  is  over.  As  long  as  men  hold  oppos- 
ing ambitions,  as  long  as  nations  have  conflicting  interests, 
there  will  be  war.  Just  as  man,  the  individual,  if  un- 
restrained by  fear  of  civil  authority,  will  use  force  to 
gain  his  ends,  so  nations,  made  up  of  men,  ruled  by  men, 
will  go  to  war  with  one  another  in  the  absence  of  any 
higher  authority  to  restrain  them. 

So,  dismissing,  as  we  must  if  we  are  to  reason  in- 
telligently, the  idea  of  the  millenium  settling  down  upon 
the  earth  after  the  European  war,  it  is  no  difficult  task 
to  picture  the  position  in  which  America  will  find  herself 
at  that  time. 

The  Central  Powers  will  hate  us,  as  they  hate  iis  now, 
because  we  have  supplied  their  enemies  with  the  muni- 
tions of  war  and  the  money  without  which  the  Entente 
AUies  could  hardly  have  continued  the  conflict. 

The  Entente  Allies  will  hate  us,  even  as  they  do  now, 
because  they  believe  we  did  not  go  far  enough  in  resent- 
ing German  submarine  warfare.  Japan  will  hate  us,  as 
she  does  now  and  has  for  years  past,  because  her  people 
have  been  denied  equality  in  the  Western  States. 

The  Wealth  we  are  accumulating  and  will  have 
amassed  by  the  time  the  war  is  over  will  make  us  the 
object  of  the  envy  of  all  nations. 

Shall  we  be  hated  and  envied — and  weak? 


162 


m 


< 


in 


Address  by  Frederick  A.  Kuenzli  to  500  boys  of  the 
"First  Regiment  of  United  States  School  Cadets," 
at  their  first  appearance  in  uniform  at  the  Audi- 
torium of  Public  School  No.  i,  Hoboken,  N.  J., 
May  12,  1916. 

If  I  should  be  asked  what  appeals  best  to  me  in 
your  pledge  of  allegiance  I  would  answer:  "One  nation 
indivisible." 

In  going  over  your  names  I  notice  that  they  bear 
the  marks  of  the  several  national  stocks  from  which 
your  fathers  came.  But  you  are  not  Irishmen  or  Ger- 
mans or  Frenchmen  or  Hebrews.  You  are  Americans, 
every  one  of  you,  and  with  no  difference  in  your  Ameri- 
canism because  of  the  stock  from  which  you  came.  You 
think,  you  wish  and  do  the  things  that  are  American 
and  the  flag  under  which  you  serve  as  cadets  is  a  flag 
in  which  the  blood  of  most  of  the  races  of  mankind  is 
united  to  make  a  free  nation. 

You  want  a  united  nation  because  you  know  that 
only  when  we  stand  "one  for  all  and  all  for  one"  can 
we  successfully  resist  when  danger  threatens  our  honor, 
integrity  or  independence.  Your  uniform  is  the  emblem 
of  unity.  Your  work,  your  training  while  in  this  garb 
has  only  one  purpose — that  of  being  better  able  to  defend 
the  Stars  and  Stripes  should  that  necessity  arise. 

You  are  brave  boys  and  your  parents  are  patriotic 
parents.  Voluntarily  you  offered  yourself  to  prepare 
your  bodies  to  better  endure  hardship  which  always 
comes  to  men  in  defense  of  the  flag;  you  are  willing 

163 


to  learn  how  to  handle  arms  and  how  to  shoot,  which 
is  essential  should  we  have  to  go  to  war. 

The  rich  boy  does  not  want  to  show  off  by  wearing 
a  suit  of  costly  material,  rich  Jack  will  not  outdo  poor 
Jim  with  a  classy  tie  when  they  come  together  in  the 
interest  of  our  country.  All  social  and  political  dis- 
tinction disappears  when  we  serve  only  the  one  purpose : 
Our  Nation.  These  are  the  reasons  of  wearing  that 
simple  uniform,  representing  all  for  which  our  glorious 
Republic  stands. 

Therefore,  boys,  respect  your  uniform,  you  wouldn't 
want  to  insult  your  flag,  your  country,  and  I  am  sure 
you  will  not  besmirch  your  uniform  by  unbecoming  con- 
duct. Wherever  you  go,  whatever  you  do  in  this  mili- 
tary suit,  think  that  you  are  in  your  best  cloth. 

We  know  that  some  of  our  citizens  do  not  like 
the  idea  of  your  training  nor  your  wearing  a  soldier's 
uniform.  I  cannot  understand  these  people,  I  cannot 
see  any  sane  objection  to  this  kind  of  preparedness.  We 
hate  war,  so  did  all  those  Americans  who  made  this 
country  great,  but  they  could  not  prevent  the  Revolution 
which  gave  us  independence,  nor  the  War  of  1 812,  the 
Mexican  War  nor  the  Spanish  War.  Eternal  World's 
Peace  has  been  a  dream  up  to  now  and  will  stay  a  dream 
for  generations  to  come. 

But  isn't  there  anything  that  could  keep  the  United 
States  out  of  war  embroilments  with  any  of  the  great 
Powers?  Answer:  Yes,  preparedness.  There  is  one 
great  example  that  proves  this  assertion  and  that  is 
Switzerland,  the  country  which  trains  the  boys  from 
their  tender  age  for  defense,  the  country  in  which  the 
boy  of  thirteen  is  a  good  shot  because  he  gets  the  train- 
ing.   From  his  i8th  to  his  20th  year  the  Swiss  boy  pre- 

164 


pares  for  the  sake  of  his  country,  and  the  Preparedness 
of  the  Swiss  youth  is  the  real  reason  that  Switzerland 
is  at  peace  today  and  none  of  the  four  great  surrounding 
powers  cares  to  attack  her. 

And  look  to  our  country.  By  whose  merit  is  it 
that  this  wonderful  flag  with  the  Stars  and  Stripes  waves 
today  over  the  heads  of  100,000,000  free  people?  Is  it 
the  merit  of  the  pacifists  who  rave  against  any  and  every 
preparedness,  who  faint  when  they  see  a  rifle,  or  is  it 
the  proud  achievement  of  those  boys  who  threw  them- 
selves into  the  garb  of  Uncle  Sam  whenever  danger 
arose  ? 

It  was  the  soldier  Washington  that  made  our  in- 
dependence possible  and  lasting,  it  was  the  minute-men 
of  New  England,  Dan  Morgan's  Virginia  riflemen  bear- 
ing on  their  uniform  coats  Patrick  Henry's  famous 
words — "Liberty  or  Death,"  it  was  Washington's  army 
of  Valley  Forge  drilled  by  Baron  Steuben,  it  was  the 
brilliant  crackshots  of  Andrew  Jackson's  backwoodsmen 
at  the  battle  of  New  Orleans  that  kept  the  Stars  and 
Stripes  floating.  When  President  Polk  sent  his  famous 
message  to  Congress  in  May,  1846,  declaring: 

"Mexico  has  invaded  our  territory  and  shed  Ameri- 
can blood  on  American  soil,"  which  prompted  Congress 
70  years  ago  tomorrow  to  declare  war,  it  was  that 
sterling  soldier  Taylor  with  his  brave  army  who  added 
victory  to  victory  and  won  the  Mexican  War.  It  was 
General  Scott  and  his  boys  in  uniform  who  so  brilliantly 
fought  their  way  to  Mexico  City  and  planted  the  Stars 
and  Stripes  over  that  city.  It  was  the  great  soldier 
boy  of  1898  who  gave  Cuba  its  liberty  and  it  will  be 
the  future  citizen-soldier  only,  who  will  protect  the 
future  of  America. 

165 


And  what  greater  thing  could  you  serve  than  a 
nation  as  this  we  love  and  are  proud  of? 

By  military  training  we  develop  an  efficient,  practi- 
cal patriotism,  a  patriotism  that  knows  that  when  the 
honor,  the  dignity,  the  integrity  of  our  country  is  at 
stake,  it  can  and  will  be  defended  by  a  trained,  capable 
army  of  patriots,  an  army  wherein  one  feels  that  he 
has  the  ability  to  do  things,  the  power  which  comes 
from  knowledge  and  training,  and  a  willingness  to  offer, 
to  contribute  all  for  our  flag. 

It  is  therefore  with  great  satisfaction  that  I  con- 
gratulate the  citizens  of  Hoboken  for  having  such  practi- 
cal patriots  as  members  of  the  City  Commission,  the 
members  of  the  Board  of  Education  and  especially  Mayor 
Patrick  Griffin,  who  made  this  Cadet  Corps  possible. 
The  State  of  New  Jersey,  which  gave  our  nation  that 
great  American,  our  President  Woodrow  Wilson,  is  also 
to  be  congratulated  in  having  the  patriotic  city  of  Ho- 
boken contribute  to  the  Nation  the  "First  Regiment  of 
United  States  School  Cadets."  That  the  City  of  Hoboken 
may  always  prosper  and  always  be  a  patriotic  daughter 
of  America  is  my  sincere  wish. 


i66 


Frederick  A.  Kuenzli. 


MILITARY  CONSTITUTION 

OF   THE 

SWISS  FEDERATION 

(Of  April  12,  1907.) 


The  Federal  Assembly  after  entertaining  a  message 
of  the  Federal  Council  decrees  the  following: 

FIRST  PART^ 

MILITARY    OBLIGATIONS. 

I.     Extent  of  Obligation. 

Article  i. 
Every  Swiss  is  bound  to  do  military  service. 
Such  service  shall  consist  of: 
Rendering  personal  military  service;  or, 
Paying  a  tax  of  exemption. 

Article  2. 

Military  service  shall  commence  with  the  year  in 
which  the  20th  year  is  reached  and  end  with  the  com- 
pletion of  the  48th  year. 

Young  men  who  pass  the  examination  of  acceptance 
may  be  permitted  to  enter  the  service  before  reaching 
the  legal  age,  but  are  not  exempt  from  the  prescribed 
training  with  their  year's  class. 

The  provisions  as  to  the  time  of  service  of  officers 
and  the  provisions  regulating  the  draft  of  boys  in  case 

167 


of  war  are  the  exceptions  to  the  aforesaid  time  limit  of 
obHgatory  service. 

Article  3. 
Anyone  not  serving  personally  must  pay  the  tax  of 
exemption.     The  duty  to  pay  the  tax  ceases  when  the 
payee  reaches  the  age  of  40. 

II.     Recruiting. 

Article  4. 

The  Federal  Government  in  conjunction  with  the 
Cantons  shall  undertake  the  recruiting. 

Directions  for  the  appointment  of  the  recruiting 
commission  and  its  procedure  shall  be  laid  down  by  the 
Federal  Council. 

Recruiting  is  to  take  place  after  a  man  reaches  his 
19th  year. 

Article  5. 

Recruiting  men  are  to  be  classified  according  to  their 
fitness : 

1 .  For  firing  line  ; 

2.  For  auxiliary  service ; 

3.  Unfit  for  duty,  on  account  of  defectiveness. 
Re-examination  within  four  years  shall  be  permissible 

before  a  final  rejection. 

After  passing  the  examination  the  recruit  shall  be 
assigned  to  a  particular  branch  of  service. 

Article  6. 

For  the  recruiting  examination  the  man  shall  report 
at  his  place  of  residence. 

While  under  order  of  recruiting  he  shall  be  subject 
to  military  jurisdiction  and  the  military  penal  law. 

168 


Article  7. 

Each  man  shall  receive  a  service  book  wherein  all 
data  relating  to  service  and  its  fulfillment  are  to  be 
entered. 

The  service  book  shall  never  be  used  for  civil 
reference. 

III.     Personal  Military  Service. 
Article  8. 

The  obligations  of  men  fit  for  the  firing  line  shall 
be  as  follows: 

1.  Service  of  instruction; 

2.  Service  with  the  colors,  active  service  in  defense 
of  the  independence  against  a  foreign  enemy,  as 
well  as  maintaining  peace  and  order  within  the 
country. 

Article  9. 

Personal  mihtary  service  shall  include  compHance 
with:  the  roster;  maintenance  and  inspection  of  uni- 
forms; personal  armament  and  equipment;  obligatory 
firing  drill;  and,  in  general,  conformance  to  the  military 
obhgations  of  the  service. 

Article  10. 
Every  soldier  may  be  compelled : 

1.  To  accept  a  commission; 

2.  To  perform  the  amount  of  service  required 
thereby ; 

3.  To  take  a  command. 

Anyone  receiving  a  commission  must  perform  the 
obligations  thereof. 

169 


Article  ii. 

The  soldier  in  service  shall  receive  from  the  State 
pay,  subsistence  and  mileage  for  traveling. 

Amount  of  pay  shall  be  fixed  by  Federal  law. 

Regulations  for  lodging,  feeding  and  mileage  shall 
be  adopted  by  the  Federal  Assembly. 

Article  12. 

During  sessions  of  the  Federal  Assembly  the  mem- 
bers thereof  are  exempt  from  service  of  instruction. 

Article  13. 

During  their  office  or  employment,  the  following  per- 
sons shall  be  exempt  from  personal  military  service: 

1.  The  members  of  the  Federal  Council  and  its  chief 
clerks ; 

2.  Ecclesiastics  not  commissioned  as  chaplains; 

3.  Medical  directors,  permanent  directors  and  nurses 
of  public  hospitals; 

4.  Directors  and  guardians  of  jails  and  penitentia- 
ries, members  of  the  police  force  (if  not  required 
to  do  duty  under  Article  62)  ; 

5.  The  personnel  of  the  border  guards. 

(In  case  of  mobilization  the  Federal  Council 
may  put  this  guard  at  the  disposal  of  the  mili- 
tary authorities.) 

6.  The  officials  who,  in  time  of  war,  are  indispensa- 
ble and  employees  of  the  public  service  and  mili- 
tary administration. 

An  ordinance  of  the  Federal  Council  shall  designate 
those  branches  of  public  service  and  the  officials  and 
employees  who,  in  time  of  war,  are  indispensable. 

170 


Article  14. 

The  members  of  police  corps  and  border  guards  as 
well  as  the  officials  and  employees  mentioned  in  Article 
13,  Section  6,  are  exempt  from  service  only  after  passing 
a  recruiting  school. 

Article  15. 

The  Federal  Government  shall  pay  three-fourths  of 
the  cost  of  substitutes  for  teachers  who  are  doing  in- 
struction service  either  as  non-commissioned  or  com- 
missioned officers.  No  Federal  aid  shall  be  given  for 
substitutes  of  such  teachers  who  do  service  in  regular 
repetition  courses. 

Article  16. 

Should  anyone  render  himself  unworthy  of  his  com- 
mission or  membership  in  the  army  by  unbecoming  con- 
duct in  private  life,  the  military  courts  shall  decide 
whether  his  actions  justify  expulsion  from  the  army. 

Article  17. 

Anyone  convicted  of  a  serious  offense  shall  be  ex- 
cluded from  the  army. 

Such  exclusion  shall  be  decreed  by  the  military  de- 
partment. 

Article  18. 

Officers  under  tutelage,  in  bankruptcy  or  against 
whom  there  exists  a  judgment  for  default  of  property 
shall  be  excluded  from  service. 

Should  the  condition  causing  the  exclusion  be  raised, 
the  board  that  commissioned  such  excluded  persons  shall 
decide  upon  his  application  for  reinstatement  to  the 
army. 

171 


Non-commissioned  officers  under  tutelage,  in  bank- 
ruptcy or  against  whom  there  exists  a  judgment  for 
default  of  property  shall  be  excluded  from  service  pend- 
ing any  such  condition. 

V 

Article  19. 

Incompetent  officers  and  non-commissioned  officers 
shall  be  removed  from  their  command  by  the  authority 
which  commissioned  them,  and  compelled  to  pay  the 
tax  of  exemption. 

Should  a  commander  of  an  Army  Division  or  Army 
Corps  ask  the  removal  for  incapability  of  an  officer  or 
non-commissioned  officer  in  his  command,  and  such  a 
request  be  ratified  by  the  Federal  Military  Department, 
the  board  which  promoted  him  to  his  rank  shall  comply 
therewith. 

To  remove  officers  above  the  rank  of  captain,  order 
must  come  from  the  Commission  for  National  Defense. 

IV.     Auxiliary  Service. 
Article  20. 

Those  recruits  found  capable  only  to  do  auxiliary 
service  shall  be  assigned  to  one  of  the  auxiliary  branches. 

Here  they  shall  enter  either  the  service  of  the  Med- 
ical Corps,  Commissary  Department,  Information  De- 
partment or  Transport  Department. 

Members  assigned  to  the  auxiliary  service  need  not 
undergo  instruction  service,  but  shall  pay  the  tax  of 
exemption  for  those  years  they  do  not  perform  active 
service. 

The  Federal  Council  shall  issue  orders  for  govern- 
ance of  the  auxiliary  service. 

172 


V.     Special  Contribution  by  the  Federation. 

Article  21. 

The  Federation  shall  insure  the  soldiers  against  fi- 
nancial loss  due  to  sickness  and  accidents. 

The  execution  of  this  article  shall  be  provided  for 
in  the  Law  of  Military  Insurance. 

Article  22. 

Adequate  provision  shall  be  made  for  the  support  of 
families  which  may  come  to  need  in  consequence  of 
members  of  families  doing  service. 

Such  aid  shall  never  be  treated  as  charity. 

Article  23. 

It  shall  come  from  the  municipality  in  which  the 
members  of  the  soldier  reside.  If  they  live  in  a  foreign 
country,  from  their  native  municipality. 

The  municipality  shall  fix  the  amount  of  aid  and 
take  all  other  measures  which  are  necessary  under  the 
conditions. 

It  shall  report  to  the  Cantonal  authority  which  in 
turn  shall  forward  the  report  to  the  Federal  Military 
Department. 

Article  24. 

Three-fourths  of  such  municipal  expenses  are  de- 
frayed by  the  Federation,  one-fourth  by  the  respective 
Canton. 

Article  25. 

Should  disputes  arise,  the  decision  of  approval  of 
the  arrangements  of  the  municipality  rests  with  the 
Federal  Council. 

173 


Article  26. 

No  demand  for  return  of  such  funds  of  aid  shall 
ever  be  made. 

Article  2y. 

For  loss  of  life  or  bodily  injury  of  a  civilian  caused 
by  military  exercises,  the  Federation  shall  be  liable  un- 
less it  is  shown  that  the  accident  was  due  to  an  act  of 
God,  or  the  fault  of  the  killed  or  injured. 

Should  the  accident  result  in  death  of  the  injured 
person,  the  Federation  shall  be  liable  to  those  who  were 
dependent  upon  the  victim. 

Article  28. 

In  a  similar  way  the  Federation  shall  be  liable  for 
all  damage  to  property  caused  by  military  exercises. 

The  Federal  Assembly  shall  arrange  the  procedure 
of  fixing  such  liability. 

Article  29. 

The  Federation  shall  have  recourse  against  persons 
causing  the  accident  or  damage  to  property. 

VI.     Duty  of  Municipalities  and  Inhabitants. 

Article  30. 
Municipalities  and  inhabitants  shall  be  bound  to: 

1.  Furnish  lodging  and  food  for  troops  and  horses, 
and  grounds  for  vehicles ; 

2.  Furnish  required  military  transports. 

For  such  service  the  Federation  shall  pay  an  ade- 
quate compensation. 

174 


Article  31. 
The  Municipalities  shall  furnish  gratuitously: 

1.  Suitable  rooms  for  recruiting,  sanitary  examina- 
tions and  inspection  of  personal  arms  and  equip- 
ments. 

2.  Rooms  for  headquarters  and  guards,  as  well  as 
for  sick  persons  and  those  under  arrest. 

3.  Grounds  and  places  for  mobilization. 

4.  Rifle  ranges  for  the  required  rifle  tests.  (Arti- 
cle  124.) 

Article  32. 

To  help  municipalities  in  establishing  rifle  ranges 
and  grounds  for  military  exercises,  the  Federal  Council 
may  grant  the  application  of  the  Federal  law  of  con- 
demnation. 

Article  33. 

Property  owners  must  allow  the  use  of  their  ground 
for  military  exercises. 

Damage  so  incurred  may  be  recovered  from  the 
Federation  by  a  procedure  laid  down  by  the  Federal 
Assembly. 

Article  34. 

Every  ten  years,  or  when  ordered,  a  census  of  horses 
and  mules,  fit  for  the  various  military  purposes,  shall 
be  taken  so  as  to  ascertain  the  number  of  such  animals 
in  municipalities  and  Cantons. 

The  owners  shall  be  bound  to  bring  free  of  charge 
their  animals  to  the  designated  census  places. 

Neglect  of  this  order  shall  place  the  liability  for  all 
costs  accruing  on  the  owner. 

Every  municipality  must  keep  a  record  of  available 
horses,  mules  and  vehicles. 

175 


^      SECOND  PART. 

ORGANIZATION   OF  THE  ARMY. 

I.     Classes  of  the  Army. 

Article  35. 

The  Army  shall  consist  of  Auszug,  Landwehr  and 
Landsturm. 

A  soldier  belongs  to  the: 

Auszug,  or  First  Line,   from  his  20th  to  his  32nd 

year ; 
Landwehr,  from  his  33rd  to  his  40th  year; 
Landsturm,  from  41st  to  48th  year. 

Assigned  to  the  Landsturm  also  shall  be: 

Soldiers  of  the  Auszug  and  Landwehr,  unfit  for 
service  in  those  classes,  but  able  to  serve  in  the 
Landsturm;  and  volunteers  who  have  proven 
their  ability  in  rifle  firing  and  their  physical 
fitness. 

The  time  of  service  for  non-commissioned  officers 
and  soldiers  of  Cavalry  is  10  years. 

Article  36. 

Captains  must  remain  in  the  First  Line  until  after 
completion  of  their  thirty-eighth  year;  in  the  Landwehr 
until  they  have  completed  their  forty- fourth  year. 

Officers  above  the  grade  of  major  must  serve  in  the 
First  Line  and  Landwehr  until  after  completion  of  the 
forty-eighth  year. 

176 


All  officers  of  the  Landsturm  must  serve  until  they 
have  completed  their  fifty-second  year. 

Officers  who  so  consent  may  be  employed  after  pass- 
ing this  age  limit. 

Officers  of  the  age  for  the  Auszug  may  be  employed 
with  the  Landwehr  or  Landsturm,  those  of  the  age  for 
the  Landwehr  with  the  Landsturm. 

Article  37. 

The  31st  of  December  of  each  year  shall  be  the  day 
of  entering  from  one  class  to  another;  in  time  of  im- 
pending war  the  Federal  Council  may  postpone  the  date 
of  entering  into  the  succeeding  class. 

In  case  of  war  the  Landwehr  may  be  used  to  fill 
the  ranks  of  the  Auszug,  the  Landsturm  those  of  the 
Landwehr. 

II.     Parts  of  the  Army. 

Article  38. 

The  army  shall  consist  of : 

1.  The  officers. 

2.  The  General  Staff. 

3.  The  branches  of  troops: 

a.  Infantry    (fusileers,   sharpshooters,   cyclists,   ma- 
chine gunners). 

b.  Cavalry  (dragoons,  guides,  mounted  machine  and 
gun  crews). 

c.  Artillery   (field  artillery,  mountain  artillery,  and 
foot  artillery). 

d.  Engineer  troops  (engineer  officers,  sappers,  pon- 
pontoniers,  pioneers,  railroaders). 

e.  Fortress  troops  (fortress  artillery,  machine  gun- 
ners, fortress  pioneers,  fortress  sappers). 

177 


f.  Medical  corps  (physicians,  pharmacists,  and  sol- 
diers of  the  medical  corps). 

g.  Veterinary  troops  (veterinarians,  farriers), 
h.     Commissary  troops. 

i.     Train  troops  (army  train,  line  train,  teamsters). 

4.  Branches  of  service: 

Military  law  officers,  chaplains,  field  post  and  field 
telegraph,  general  transportation  and  railroad 
service,  territorial  service,  secretaries  and  order- 
lies for  headquarters,  motor  service,  military 
police. 

5.  Auxiliary  service  (Article  20). 

The  Federal  Assembly  may  change,  or  make  additions 
to  these  regulations. 

Article  39. 
The  Army  shall  be  divided  into: 

1.  Elementary  units:  Company,  squadron,  battery, 
ambulance,  detachment  of  railroad  troops. 

2.  Tactical  units:  Battalion,  groups  of  artillery, 
regiment,  brigade,  lazaret,  commissary  detach- 
ment, mobile  train,  depot  train. 

3.  Army  units :  Division,  Army  Corps,  garrison  of 
fortifications. 

III.     Staffs,  General  Staff. 
Article  40. 
The  staff  of  the  Army  shall  be  at  the  service  of  the 
Commander-in-Chief.      An    ordinance    of    the    Federal 
Council  shall  regulate  its  organization. 

In  peace  times  the  General  Staff  shall  perform  the 
functions  of  the  staff  of  the  Army. 

178 


Article  41. 

Staff  officers  shall  be  assigned  to  the  commanders  of 
the  army  and  tactical  units. 

Assignment  of  officers  and  secretaries  to  the  staffs 
shall  be  made  by  the  Federal  Military  Department  after 
conference  with  the  respective  commanders. 

Staffs  of  fusileer  battalions  are  excepted. 

As  a  rule,  officers  detailed  to  staff  duty  shall  return 
after  four  years'  service  to  their  field  units. 

Article  42. 

The  General  Staff  shall  consist  of  officers  of  the 
general  staff  corps  and  military  railroad  officers. 

The  chief  of  the  General  Staff  Department  shall  be 
head  of  the  General  Staff. 

Article  43. 

Captains  and  first  lieutenants,  who  have  fulfilled  the 
requirements  for  promotion  to  captaincy  may  be  ad- 
mitted to  the  General  Staff  Corps. 

Successful  passing  of  General  Staff  School  I  shall  be 
also  required. 

Captains  who  have  successfully  passed  the  Central 
School  II,  and  who  are  eligible  for  service  in  the  Gener- 
al Staff  need  not  take  the  first  part  of  General  Staff 
School  I. 

Article  44. 

After  a  first  period  of  four  years'  service  with  the 
General  Staff,  officers  shall,  as  a  rule,  be  transferred 
back  to  their  field  unit.  During  each  rank  they  should 
be  afforded  the  command  of  a  field  unit. 

The  military  railroad  officers  shall  be  chosen  from 
officials  of  the  railroad  and  steamboat  service. 

179 


IV.     Classification  of  the  Army. 

Article  45. 

The  following  units  are  to  be  formed: 
Infantry:   3  to  6  companies  shall  form  a  battalion;  2  to 

4  battalions  a  regiment;  2  to  3  regiments  a  brigade. 
Cavalry:    2  to  3  squadrons  of  dragoons  shall   form  a 

regiment;  2  to  3  regiments  and  a  mounted  company 

of  machine  guns,  a  brigade. 
Artillery:    2  to  4  batteries  of  field,  mountain,  or  foot 

artillery  shall  form  a  "group";  2  to  3  "groups,''  a 

regiment;  4  to  6  park  companies  and  the  necessary 

trains,  a  mobile  park ;  2  to  4  park  companies  a  depot 

park. 

Engineers :  2  to  4  companies,  with  necessary  train  shall 

form  a  battalion. 
Fortress  troops :  2  to  6  companies  of  the  fortress  troops 

shall  form  a  "group"  of  fortress  artillery. 
Medical  Corps:    3  to  6  ambulance  and  necessary  train 

shall  form  a  "lazaret." 
Commissary  troops :    Several  subsistence  companies  with 

train  shall  form  a  subsistence  detachment. 

Article  46. 

Divisions  shall  form  by  assembling  elementary  and 
tactical  units  of  different  branches  of  arms.  An  Army 
Corps  is  to  be  composed  of  several  Divisions  with  addi- 
tional units. 

Article  47. 

The  commander  of  a  fortified  place  shall  be  the  com- 
mander-in-chief of  the  garrison  and  in  time  of  war  he 

180 


shall  have  at  his  disposal  all  the  war  material  in  the 
place.     Parts  of  the  garrison  are  to  be: 

The  staffs,  with  the  chief  of  artillery  and  engineers ; 
the  commanders  of  sectors  and  forts;  the  guard  troops 
of  forts ;  the  fortress  troops,  and  the  branches  of  troops. 

To  guard  against  surprise  the  soldiers  of  the  vicinity 
may  form  guard  troops. 

Article  48. 
In  organizing,  instructing  and  equipping  troops,  re- 
cruited   from  montainous   regions,   their  availability   in 
the  event  of  war  and  the  proximity  of  their  place  of 
abode  to  the  scene  of  action  should  be  considered. 

Article  49. 

To  staffs  and  units  are  to  be  added  the  necessary 
officers  and  non-commissioned  officers  of  other  branches 
of  arms  and  branches  of  service. 

These  officers  or  non-commissioned  officers  shall  re- 
tain their  original  assignment  but  shall  be  subject  at 
any  time  to  report  for  duty  with  their  respective  staffs 
The  staff  commander  shall  be  the  superior  of  such  at- 
tached officers  or  non-commissioned  officers. 

Article  50. 
The  service  of  subsistence  and  accountability  are  to 
be  performed  by  quartermasters  in  the  tactical  units,  by 
commissary  officers  in  the  army  units. 

The  quartermasters  are  to  be  taken  from  field  officers 
but  they  shall  retain  their  original  assignment  of  branch 
of  arms. 

Article  51. 

Officers  not  assigned  to  particular  troops  shall  be  at 
the  disposition  of  the  Federal  Council. 

j8i 


Article  52. 
The  Federal  Assembly  shall  decree: 

1.  The  number  and  composition  of  the  elementary 
units  in  the  different  branches  of  arms  and  the 
composition  of  their  corps  material; 

2.  The  number  and  composition  of  tactical  units  and 
army  units  as  well  as  the  composition  of  their 
staffs  and  corps  material; 

3.  The  number  of  companies,  fusileer  battalions  and 
squadrons  of  dragoons  to  be  furnished  by  each 
Canton. 

Article  53. 

According  to  these  resolutions  the  Federal  Council 
shall  establish  the  order  of  battle. 

V.     Branches  of  Service. 

Article  54. 

Military  laws  shall  be  administered  by  Division 
Courts,  Supplementary  Courts,  Military  Courts  of  Ap- 
peals and  the  Special  Courts. 

The  Judge  Advocate  shall  be  the  chief  administrator 
of  law. 

Military  judges  must  have  a  judicial  education  and 
the  credit  of  service  as  troop  officer. 

The  military  penal  law  is  to  be  decreed  by  a  special 
Federal  law. 

Article  55. 

Chaplains  shall  be  attached  to  the  various  tactical 
units,  according  to  the  predominating  faith  in  such  unit. 
Chaplains  shall  have  the  rank  of  captains. 

182 


Article  56. 

Postal  service  for  troops  of  considerable  number  is 
to  be  handled  by  the  field  post. 

The  field  telegraphy  shall  take  over  the  telegraphic 
service  of  the  Army. 

The  officials  of  the  field  post  and  field  telegraph  at- 
tached to  the  staff  hold,  during  service,  the  rank  of 
officers  and  non-commissioned  officers. 

Article  57. 

The  transportation  and  railroad  service  shall  take 
over  the  communication  between  the  territorial  authori- 
ties and  the  Army. 

Transport  to  and  from  the  Army  as  well  as  the  pro- 
tection of  the  lines  of  communication  is  to  be  left  to 
its  care. 

Article  58. 

The  territorial  department  shall  be  intrusted  with 
the  country's  interest  where  the  Army  cannot  take  care 
of  it. 

Delivery  to  and  carrying  from  the  Army  shall  be  its 
duty. 

The  territorial  service  can  also  be  charged  with  local 
defense  problems  out  of  reach  of  the  field  army. 

Article  59. 
Secretaries  of  staffs  shall  do  the  office  work  of  staffs. 
They   shall   have   either   the    rank   of    "Adjudantunter- 
offizier"  or  lieutenant. 

Article  60. 
To  care   for  horses,  arms  and  personal   equipment 
of  mounted  officers,  orderlies  are  to  be  assigned  to  staffs 
and  units. 

183 


Units  of  field  and  mountain  artillery  as  well  as  train 
troops  shall  have  no  such  orderlies. 

Officers'  orderlies  shall  do  their  recruiting  school 
service  with  the  train  troops  and  their  other  service  with 
the  staif  to  which  they  are  assigned. 

The  Federal  Council  may  prescribe  additional  regu- 
lations for  the  officers'  orderlies. 

Article  6i. 

Automobile  service  and  service  of  similar  nature  is 
to  be  performed  by  soldiers  or  volunteers. 

The  latter  shall  be  under  military  law  pending  such 
employment. 

Article  62. 

For  police  duty  with  the  field  troops  an  army  police, 
made  up  of  members  of  police  corps,  is  to  be  organized 
by  the  Federal  Assembly. 

VI.     Superiors. 

Article  63. 
The  following  are  to  be  ranks  in  the  Army : 

a.  "High  privates"   (Gefreite). 

b.  Non-commissioned  officers: 

Corporal,  sergeant,  quartermaster-sergeant,  sergeant- 
major,  "non-commissioned  officer  adjutant"  (Ad- 
jutant Unteroffizier). 

c.  Subalterns ; 

Second  and  First  Lieutenant. 

d.  Captains. 

184 


e.     Higher  Officers: 

Major,  Lieutenant-Colonel,  Colonel,  Colonel  of  Di- 
vision, Colonel  of  Army  Corps,  General. 

The  incumbent  of  a  rank  shall  retain  his  grade  even 
after  leaving  his  command. 

Article  64. 

Within  the  same  rank  the  date  of  promotion  shall 
determine  the  precedence;  with  the  same  rank  and  same 
date  of  promotion  the  seniority  shall  determine  the  pre- 
cedence. 

In  case  of  a  temporary  vacancy  of  a  command,  no 
one  being  especially  designated  to  take  over  the  duties, 
the  immediate  subordinate  shall  fill  the  place.  First 
chance  for  temporary  appointment  shall  be  given  to  the 
one  who  has  passed  the  requirements  for  the  higher 
rank. 

Article  65. 

The  number  of  non-commissioned  and  commissioned 
officers  must  always  be  kept  at  full  strength. 

Non-commissioned  and  commissioned  officers  for 
reserve  must  also  be  provided. 

Article  66. 

Appointment  and  promotion  shall  take  place  only  if 
the  applicant  be  legally  certified  as  to  his  capacity. 

The  Federal  Council  may  nullify  any  appointment 
or  promotion  which  is  contrary  to  the  provision  of  the 
law  of  promotion. 

Article  67. 
The  reports  of  ability  of  non-commissioned  officers 
shall  be  given  out  by  the  commanders  of  units  or  mili- 

185 


tary  schools  immediately  after  successful  passing  of  such 
courses. 

Article  68. 

Appointments  and  promotions  of  non-commissioned 
officers  shall  be  made  by  the  commanders  of  staffs  and 
units,  according  to  need  and  age  of  service. 

Article  69. 

Commissions  of  promotion  to  lieutenants,  first  lieu- 
tenants and  captains  shall  be  issued  by  the  chief  of  the 
respective  branch  of  the  Military  Department  as  soon 
as  the  candidates  successfully  pass  the  prescribed  courses 
or  schools. 

Such  commissions  shall  be  subject  to  the  confirma- 
tion of  the  Division  Commander  (if  the  troop,  the  can- 
didate belongs  to,  is  subordinate  to  such),  Army  Corps 
Commander  or  Fortress  Commander. 

Article  70. 

Certificates  of  ability  for  appointment  and  promotion 
of  staff  officers  shall  be  issued  by  the  National  Defense 
Commission. 

It  shall  propose  the  names  for  promotion  and  shall 
detail  officers  appointed  by  the  Federal  Government. 

Article  71. 
Promotion  to  first  lieutenant  takes  place  according  to 
the  age  of  service.    All  other  promotions  ensue  according 
to  need  and  efficiency. 

Article  ^2. 
An  ordinance  of  the  Federal  Council  shall  determine, 
on  the  basis  of  the  regulations  of  this  law,  the  conditions 
otherwise  necessary  to  obtain  a  commission. 

186 


VII.     Horses  for  Military  Purposes. 

Article  73. 
The  government  shall  aid  mounted  officers  in  pro- 
curing, training  and  maintaining  saddle-horses. 

Article  74. 

Lieutenant-colonels  and  officers  of  a  higher  grade, 
who  are  commanding  officers  of  the  First  Line,  shall  be 
entitled  to  an  allowance  for  maintaining  a  service  horse. 

The  same  privilege  shall  be  extended  to  the  officers 
of  the  General  Staff  doing  service  with  army  staff  or 
staffs  of  the  First  Line. 

For  additional  horses  to  which  those  officers  are  en- 
titled, as  well  as  for  horses  of  all  other  mounted  officers, 
a  daily  allowance  shall  be  made  for  the  duration  of 
service. 

All  horses  drawing  an  annual  allowance  and  horses 
brought  into  service  by  officers  shall  be  appraised  when 
first  brought  into  service  as  well  as  from  time  to  time 
while  in  service,  and  at  the  end  of  it. 

The  Federal  Council  shall  provide  the  regulations  for 
the  annual  allowance,  the  daily  rental,  as  well  as  the 
mounts  for  Department  officials  and  instructors. 

Article  75. 
Officers,   non-commissioned  officers   and   soldiers   of 
cavalry  shall  keep  a  horse  for  duty.     The  government 
shall  give  the  First  Line  officers  of  cavalry  the  same 
privilege  of  acquiring  horses  as  the  soldiers  have. 

Article  76. 
The  cavalry  horses  are  to  be  purchased  either  by 
the  government  or  furnished  by  the  men. 

187 


They  are  to  be  trained  in  remount  courses,  appraised 
and  turned  over  to  the  men. 

Article  yy. 

The  horses  bought  by  the  government  are  to  be 
turned  over  to  the  soldier  after  they  pay  half  of  the 
appraised  value. 

For  horses  furnished  by  the  man  and  placed  at  the 
disposition  of  the  department  the  government  shall  pay 
half  of  the  appraised  value.  The  sum  of  money  which 
the  man  has  to  pay  to  the  government  or  the  govern- 
ment to  the  man  (constituting  50%  of  the  appraised 
value)  is  to  be  paid  in  10  yearly  payments. 

Article  78. 

The  mount  shall  remain  in  possession  of  the  man  as 
long  as  he  belongs  to  the  First  Line. 

When  not  doing  service  the  horse  must  be  properly 
fed  and  cared  for,  and  may  be  used  for  any  purpose 
not  hurting  its  fitness  for  service.  The  horse  shall  be 
requisitioned  for  every  service  its  owner  has  to  perform. 

Article  79. 

The  man  shall  be  liable  for  the  loss  of  the  horse  or 
injury,  if  such  is  due  to  the  man's  carelessness. 

Cavalry  soldiers,  who  maltreat  their  horses  or  be- 
come unable  to  properly  take  care  of  them,  are  to  be 
transferred  to  another  branch  of  arms  or  discharged 
from  service.  In  the  latter  case  the  horse  must  be 
returned. 

Article  80. 

The  cavalry  horses  are  to  be  government  property 
and  therefore  may  not  be  sold  by  the  man ;  neither  can 
an  attachment  or  seizure  be  made. 

188 


If  a  man  completes   lo  years  of  service  with  the 
same  horse,  that  horse  shall  be  his  property  thereafter. 

Article  8i. 
Lodging,  maintenance,   feeding  and   use   of  cavalry 
horses,  when  not  in  military  service,  shall  be  controlled 
by  the  officers  of  the  branch. 

Article  82. 
The  government  may  contract  with  third  parties  for 
the  maintenance  of  cavalry  horses.     In  such  cases  the 
legal  obligations  between  the  parties  are  to  be  the  same 
as  between  government  and  cavalry  soldier. 

Article  83. 
Controversies  arising  from  application  of  the  regu- 
lations for  cavalry  horses  are  to  be  decided  by  the  mili- 
tary   department;    if    appeal    is   taken   to   the    Federal 
Council,  decision  by  that  body  shall  be  final. 

Article  84. 
An  ordinance  by  the  Federal  Council  shall  regulate, 
on  basis  of  the  preceding  rules,  the  legal  relations  per- 
taining to  cavalry  horses. 

Article  85. 
Officers  shall  furnish  their  own  mounts  for  service. 
All  other  mounts  for  instruction  service  are  to  be 
furnished  by  the  Military  Department. 

Article  86. 
While  doing  service  the  mounts  and  pack-horses  are 
to  be  lodged  and  fed  by  the  government. 

189 


VIII.     Armament  and  Personal  Equipment;   Equip- 
ment of  Corps  and  other  War  Material. 

Article  87. 

The  Federal  Assembly  shall  decree  the  general  regu- 
lations relative  to  armament,  personal  equipment,  equip- 
ment of  corps  and  all  other  war  material.  The  Federal 
Council  shall  adopt  specifications  for  manufacturing 
these  articles. 

Article  88. 

Arms  and  personal  equipments  shall  be  furnished  to 
the  soldier. 

Arms  and  equipment  for  the  recruits  shall  be  new 
or  of  equivalent  value. 

Articles  of  armament  or  equipment,  which  are  worn- 
out  or  become  worthless,  are  to  be  replaced  immediately. 

Article  89. 

The  Government  shall  provide  cyclists,  attached  to 
the  First  Line  troops,  with  machine  and  accessories,  upon 
payment  of  half  of  the  purchase  price. 

An  ordinance  of  the  Federal  Council  shall  regulate 
the  legal  status  of  the  cycles  of  the  military  cyclists. 

Article  90. 
Arms  and  equipment  of  soldiers  are  to  be  furnished 
by  the  Canton  in  which  the  men  are  recruited.  Equip- 
ment and  personal  arms  of  a  man,  who  has  changed  his 
residence  permanently  since  recruiting,  is  to  be  furnished 
by  the  Canton  in  which  he  resides. 

Article  91. 
Arms  and  personal  equipment  are  to  be  in  possession 
of  the  man  during  the  whole  of  his  time  of  service. 

190 


The  man  must  take  good  care  of  them.  He  shall 
be  liable  for  loss  or  damage  caused  by  his  carelessness. 

To  use  personal  equipment  outside  the  service  with- 
out permission  is  forbidden. 

Article  92. 

Arms  and  personal  equipment  are  the  property  of  the 
government  and  shall  not  be  disposed  of  by  the  man. 
They  shall  not  be  attached  or  seized. 

Article  93. 

Arms  and  personal  equipment  are  to  be  taken  away 
from  men  who  are  not  capable  to  take  care  of  them  or 
neglectful  in  their  care,  or  who  leave  the  service  before 
finishing  their  obligation. 

Article  94. 

Men  completing  their  service  obligation  may  keep 
their  arms  and  equipment  as  their  property. 

Article  95. 

Officers  shall  furnish  their  own  clothing,  but  their 
expenses  shall  be  remitted  according  to  regulations  of 
the  Federal  Council.  Other  articles  of  personal  equip- 
ment and  arms  are  to  be  furnished  gratuitously  by  the 
government.  Mounted  officers  also  shall  get  their  ac- 
cessories without  cost. 

Article  96. 
Corps  equipment  for  staff  and  units  are  to  be  pro- 
vided by  the  government.    The  government  shall  replace 
worn-out  equipment  and  repair  equipment. 

191 


Article  97. 

Corps  equipment  is  to  be  kept  at  places  of  mobili- 
zation. Each  staff  and  unit  shall  have  its  separate  place 
for  material.  Such  places  must  be  of  easy  access  to 
owners. 

Any  vehicles  to  complete  the  corps  equipment  are  to 
be  rented. 

Article  98. 

The  government  shall  have  ready  at  all  times  a 
supply  of  munition  and  explosives  adequate  for  any  war 
emergency. 

Article  99. 

Personal  equipment  and  arms  in  hands  of  soldiers 
shall  be  subject  to  yearly  inspection.  The  inspection 
shall  take  place: 

1.  Of  soldiers  and  non-commissioned  officers  doing 
service  for  the  ensuing  year.  Such  inspection 
shall  be  held  during  their  respective  schools  or 
courses. 

2.  For  soldiers  and  non-commissioned  officers  not 
doing  service  for  the  ensuing  year.  The  inspec- 
tion shall  take  place  at  certain  (published)  days 
in  the  municipalities. 

For  such  inspection  the  soldiers  are  not  to  be  paid. 

For  military  courses  the  inspections  are  to  be  per- 
formed by  the  officers  with  the  assistance  of  professional 
men,  in  the  municipalities  by  the  Commandant  of  District 
with  the  assistance  of  officers.  Personal  arms  are  to 
be  inspected  by  the  "Comptrollers  of  Arms''  or  their 
deputies. 

Damaged  arms  or  equipment  are  to  be  repaired  or 
replaced  immediately. 

102 


Article  ioo. 
Yearly,  inspection  of  Landwehr  and  Landsturm  are 
utilized  to  complete  and  correct  the  rosters  and  for  the 
transfer  of  the  men  from  one  class  to  the  other. 

Article  ioi. 

Every  two  years  the  corps  equipment  of  units  as 
well  as  the  one  for  Infantry  and  Engineer  battalions 
shall  be  inspected  by  their  respective  commanders;  all 
other  war  material  by  the  chiefs  of  the  branches  of  the 
military  department,  or  their  assigned  deputies. 

The  object  of  such  inspections  shall  be  to  ascertain 
a  correct  storing,  completeness  and  good  condition  of 
material,  and  especially  of  quick  mobilization. 

THIRD  PART. 

INSTRUCTION    OF    THE    ARMY. 
I.     Preparatory  Instruction. 

Article  102. 

The  Cantons  shall  see  to  it  that  males  of  school  age 
receive  physical  training. 

This  training  is  to  be  given  by  teachers  who  attain 
the  requisite  qualifications  in  teachers'  colleges,  and  in 
special  courses  of  instruction  provided  by  the  Federal 
government. 

The  Federal  Government  shall  exercise  supervision 
over  the  fulfilment  of  these  provisions. 

Article  103. 
The   Federal   Government   may   support   such   asso- 
ciations and  other  institutions  as  foster  physical  training 

193 


of  boys  after  leaving  school,  and  the  preparation  for  their 
military  service. 

The  examination  for  fitness  for  the  Army  shall  con- 
sist, in  part,  of  a  test  for  physical  proficiency. 

The  Federal  Government  shall  adopt  a  course  of 
instruction  for  such  physical  training.  It  shall  also  ar- 
range courses  for  the  training  of  instructors  for  this 
branch. 

Article  104. 

The  Federal  Government  may  contribute  to  the  main- 
tenance of  associations  and  eflforts  the  aim  of  which  is 
the  military  preparation  of  the  boys  before  they  arrive 
at  age. 

Special  care  is  to  be  given  to  shooting  practice. 

The  Federal  Government  shall  provide,  free  of 
charge,  weapons,  ammunition  and  necessary  equipment. 

The  Federal  Government  shall  prescribe  rules  and 
exercise  supervision  over  all  such  military  preparation. 

II.     Corps  of  Instructors.     General  Directions. 

Article  105. 

To  conduct  the  instruction  of  recruits  and  training 
of  non-commissioned  and  commissioned  officers  in  the 
respective  courses,  a  corps  of  instructors  shall  be  formed. 

The  Federal  Assembly  shall  fix  the  number  of  in- 
structors for  the  different  branches  of  arms. 

Article  106. 
At  the  head  of  the  instructors'  corps  of  each  branch 
of  arms   shall  be  the  Chief  of  the  respective  division 
of  the  Military  Department. 

Each  (district  of  an)  Army  Division  shall  have  a 
District  Instructor,  who  is  to  be  in  charge  of  the  train- 

194 


ing  and  instruction  of  men,  non-commissioned  and  com- 
missioned officers. 

Article  107. 

Instructors  assigned  to  a  certain  branch  of  arms  may 
be  transferred  for  instruction  in  other  branches,  in  Cen- 
tral schools,  etc.,  as  well  as  in  the  administrative  branch 
of  the  military  department. 

Such  changes  of  their  employment  should  take  place 
according  to  fitness  and  opportunity. 

Officers  of  the  corps  of  Instructors  are  to  be  assigned 
to  the  army  and  promoted  as  other  officers. 

Article  108. 

For  the  instruction  in  recruiting  and  cadres-schools 

of  fortress  troops,  instructors  of  the  different  branches 

of  arms  are  to  be  assigned.     Pending  such  service  they 

are  to  be  at  the  disposition  of  the  Chief  of  the  Artillery. 

Article  109. 
Instruction  and  training  of  tactical,  troop  and  army 
units,  and  the  conduct  of  recruiting  schools  are  to  be  in 
the  hands  of  troop  (field)  officers. 

Article  iio. 
The  Military  Department  shall  outline  the  general 
plan  of  training.  The  commanders  of  schools,  and  troop 
commanders  shall  prepare  a  working  program  on  the 
basis  of  the  above  instructions,  for  the  courses  and  the 
school  they  have  to  conduct.  They  shall  submit  such 
schedules  to  their  immediate  superiors  for  approval. 

Article  hi. 
The  Central  schools  and  the  schools  for  the  officers 
of  the  General  Staff  are  to  be  organized  so  as  to  insure 
a  uniform  training. 

195 


Article  112. 
The  time  of  instruction,  especially  the  time  to  hold 
recruiting  schools  should  be  selected  so  as  to  disturb  as 
little  as  possible  the  civil  occupation  of  the  man. 

Article  113. 

For  a  scientific  military  training  of  officers,  especially 
the  officers  of  the  corps  of  instructors,  the  "Ecole  Poly- 
technique  Federale"  at  Zurich  shall  maintain  an  addi- 
tional faculty. 

Article  114. 

Any  part  of  the  service  a  man  is  prevented  from 
fulfilling  at  the  required  time,  must  be  made  up  later. 

An  ordinance  of  the  Federal  Council  may  specify 
exceptions  to  the  above  rule. 

Article  115. 
The  fixed  duration  of  courses  and  schools  is  not  to 
include  the  time  necessary  for  organization  and  dis- 
charge, which  should,  however,  not  extend  to  more  than 
two  days  for  infantry  and  cavalry  and  three  days  for 
other  branches  of  arms. 

Article  116. 

The  military  authorities  are  authorized  to  call  to 
service,  for  the  organization  of  schools  and  courses, 
the  necessary  musicians,  hospital  help,  gunsmiths,  far- 
riers, etc. 

Article  117. 

The  commanders  of  schools  and  courses  shall  report 
briefly  on  the  conduct  of  such.  To  this  report  is  to  be 
added  that  of  the  inspecting  officer  of  the  school  or 
course.  The  report  shall  be  sent  to  the  Military  Depart- 
ment through  military  channels. 

196 


III.     Instruction  and  Training  of  Recruits. 
Article  ii8. 

The  recruiting  schools  are  to  train  the  men  to  be- 
come soldiers,  and  to  serve  as  a  practical  instruction  of 
cadres.  The  duration  of  such  schools  for  Infantry  and 
Engineers  shall  be  sixty-five  days;  for  Cavalry  ninety; 
for  Artillery  and  Fortress  troops  seventy-five ;  for  Sani- 
tary, Veterinary,  Commissary  and  Train  troops,  sixty 
days. 

Article  119. 

Musicians,  gunsmiths,  farriers,  and  orderlies  of  offi- 
cers shall  receive  their  necessary  professional  training 
in  the  recruiting  school  or  in  special  courses  ordered  by 
the  Federal  Council.  In  the  latter  case  they  shall  serve 
only  forty  days  of  the  recruiting  school. 

Sanitary  Corps  soldiers  shall  take,  besides  the  re- 
cruiting school,  a  hospital  course,  the  duration  of  which 
is  to  be  fixed  by  the  Federal  Council. 

IV.     Repetition  Courses. 
Article  120. 
First   Line   troops   must  pass   an   annual   repetition 
course  to  last  eleven  days,  except  those  for  the  Artillery 
and  Fortress  troops,  which  shall  last  fourteen  days. 

Privates  and  corporals  need  only  take  seven  yearly 
repetition  courses,  cavalry  eight,  non-commissioned  offi- 
cers from  sergeant  up  only  ten.  Courses  passed  in  lower 
grades  shall  count  also. 

Article  121. 
Repetition  courses  of  First  Line  troops  are  to  be  so 
arranged  that  an  adequate  change  of  training  in  smaller 
tactical  units  with  training  in  army  units  shall  take  place. 

197 


Article  122. 

Landwehr  repetition  courses  of  eleven  days  for  all 
branches  shall  be  held  every  four  years.  Privates  and 
corporals  of  the  Landwehr  rnust  take  only  one  repetition 
course.  Landwehr  men  assigned  to  the  First  Line  must 
do  service  with  those  troops. 

Article  123. 

In  case  of  reorganization  of  army  units,  or  new  arma- 
ment, etc.,  the  Federal  Assembly  is  authorized  to  order 
special  courses  and  fix  their  duration.  The  Federal  As- 
sembly is  also  authorized  to  arrange  special  courses  of 
one  to  three  days  for  parts  of  the  Landsturm. 

In  urgent  cases  the  Federal  Council  may  call  the 
Landsturm  of  certain  territories  for  such  courses. 

V.     Obligatory  and  Voluntary  Rifle-Practice. 
Article  124. 

Enlisted  men  and  non-commissioned  officers  of  the 
First  Line  and  Landwehr  armed  with  rifles  or  carabines, 
as  well  as  the  subaltern  officers  of  the  troops,  shall  pass 
a  yearly  rifle  practice  test.  Such  tests  are  to  be  con- 
ducted by  the  rifle  clubs  according  to  the  Federal  regu- 
lations. 

Those  who  neglect  this  test  must  undergo  a  special 
course  without  pay. 

Article  125. 

Rifle  practice  in  clubs,  if  subsidized  by  the  govern- 
ment, shall  be  conducted  according  to  the  military  regu- 
lations. Courses  for  rifle  firing  instruction  for  such 
clubs  shall  be  adopted  by  the  Federal  Government. 

ig8 


Article  126. 
The   Federal   Government   may   aid   financially   any 
movement  toward  preparatory  military  training,  organ- 
ized and  subject  to  Federal  regulations. 

VI.     Instruction  and  Training  of  Non-commissioned 
Officers. 

Article  127. 

Soldiers  of  Infantry,  Sanitary,  Commissary  and  Train 
troops,  recommended  for  promotion  to  non-commissioned 
officers'  rank  must  pass  a  school  for  non-commissioned 
officers  lasting  twenty  days ;  those  of  Cavalry,  Artillery, 
Engineers  and  Fortress  troops  one  of  thirty  days'  du- 
ration. 

The  call  for  such  schools  shall  follow  a  recom- 
mendation of  the  troop  officers  and  instructors  of  the 
recruiting  school,  or  the  officers  of  the  unit  of  a  repeti- 
tion course. 

Article  128. 

Newly  appointed  corporals,  must  pass  a  recruiting 
school  to  qualify.  This  obligation  does  not  include  non- 
commissioned officers  recommended  for  the  school  for 
officers. 

Article  129. 

Non-commissioned  officers  recommended  as  fourriers 
(non-commissioned  officers  of  Quartermasters'  Depart- 
ment) must  pass  a  school  for  fourriers  lasting  thirty 
days. 

Newly  appointed  fourriers  must  pass  a  recruiting 
school  to  qualify.  Non-commissioned  officers  nominated 
to  be  staff  secretaries  must  pass  a  course  for  staff  secre- 
taries of  thirty  days'  duration. 

199 


VII.     Instruction  and  Training  of  Officers. 

Article  130. 
The  specific  training  for  officers  shall  take  place  in 
a  school  for  officers.     The  duration  of  these  schools  is 
as  follows: 

1.  For    Infantry,     Cavalry    and     Fortress    troops, 
eighty  days. 

2.  For  Artillery  and   Engineers,  one  hundred  and 
five  days. 

3.  For  Train  troops,  sixty  days. 

4.  For  Sanitary  and  Commissary  troops  and  Veteri- 
nary Surgeons,  forty-five  days. 

Officers'  schools  for  Artillery  and  Engineers  may  be 
held  in  two  parts. 

Article  131. 

To  the  schools  for  officers  only  non-commissioned 
officers  are  admitted.  The  call  shall  be  based  on  the 
recommendation  of  commanding  officers  and  instructing 
officers  in  recruiting  schools  and  field  officers  of  repeti- 
tion courses. 

Non-commissioned  officers  of  the  sanitary  and  veteri- 
nary branches,  to  be  called  to  the  officers'  school,  must 
have  passed  the  Cantonal  examination  for  the  medical, 
veterinary  and  pharmaceutical  professions.  The  call  for 
the  officers'  school  of  the  sanitary  and  veterinary  service 
shall  be  issued  by  the  chief  of  the  sanitary  and  veterinary 
service.  It  shall  not  be  necessary  to  have  the  recom- 
mendation of  the  officers  of  a  former  course. 

Article  132. 
Newly  appointed  lieutenants  must  pass  a  recruiting 
school  to   qualify.     Engineers  and  veterinary  surgeons 

200 


shall  undergo  this  course  in  recruiting  schools  of  other 
branches  of  arms. 

Article  133. 

Candidates  for  commissary  officers'  positions  shall 
receive  their  training  for  such  service  in  a  course  of 
twenty  days'  duration. 

Newly  appointed  quartermasters  must  pass  half  of  a 
recruiting  school  to  qualify. 

Article  134. 

1.  For  advancement  to  captaincy,  subaltern  officers 
of  Infantry,  Cavalry,  Artillery,  Engineers  and 
Fortress  troops  must  pass  Central  School  II,  of 
thirty  days'  duration. 

2.  For  promotion  to  a  higher  rank,  first  lieutenants 
of  Infantry,  Cavalry,  Artillery,  Engineers,  For- 
tress Troops,  Commissary  Troops  and  Train 
Troops  must  pass  a  recruiting  school  as  com- 
mander of  a  unit. 

3.  For  promotion  to  a  higher  rank  captains  must 
pass  Central  School  II  of  a  duration  of  fifty 
days.  This  course  may  be  arranged  in  two  parts. 
To  be  ordered  to  this  course  it  shall  be  requisite 
to  possess  a  certificate  of  ability  for  advancement 
to  a  higher  grade,  acquired  in  a  former  military 
course. 

For  captains  of  Sanitary,  Veterinary,  Commissary- 
and  Train-service,  Central  School  II  can  be  substituted 
by  another  special  course. 

Article  135. 
The   Federal   Assembly,   in   addition   to   above-men- 
tioned courses  and  for  further  training  of  officers,  shall 


arrange   for   Firing  schools,   as  well  as   for  Technical 
courses. 

Officers,  for  the  purpose  of  further  training,  may  be 
ordered  to  courses  and  schools  of  other  branches  of  arms 
than  their  own,  or  to  special  service. 

Article  136, 

The  Federal  Assembly  designates  the  schools  and 
courses  necessary  for  the  instruction  of  officials  of  field 
post  and  field  telegraphy,  as  well  as  for  officers  of  the 
transportation  and  territorial  service. 

VIII.     General  StafiF. 

Article  137. 

Instruction  for  service  in  the  General  Staff  shall  be 
obtained  in  the  following  courses : 

1.  General  Staff  School  I  of  seventy  days'  duration 
for  future  officers  of  the  General  Staff  (article 
43),  this  course  to  be  divided  into  two  parts. 

2.  General  Staff  School  II  of  forty-two  days'  du- 
ration for  captains  (article  43). 

3.  General  Staff  School  III  of  twenty-one  days'  du- 
ration for  officers  having  successfully  passed  the 
General  Staff  School  I  and  II. 

To  these  schools  field  officers  also  may  be  ordered. 
The  Federal  Assembly  may  authorize  additional  practice 
courses. 

Article  138. 

Every  year  a  number  of  officers  of  the  General  Staff 
shall  be  ordered  to  duty  in  the  General  Staff  Depart- 
ment.   Field  officers  may  also  be  assigned  to  such  work. 

202 


Article  139. 

Officers  of  the  General  Staff  assigned  to  headquarters 
are  to  take  part  in  the  exercises  of  those  staffs.  Other 
officers  of  the  General  Staff  may  be  ordered  to  such 
exercises.  Officers  of  the  General  Staff  also  are  to  be 
ordered  to  schools  and  courses  of  the  different  branches 
of  arms. 

Article  140. 

Officers  of  the  Railroad  Department  must  take  a 
course  of  twenty  days  and  afterwards,  according  to 
need,  may  be  called  for  work  under  the  General  Staff 
or  special  courses. 

To  these  courses  and  to  this  work  other  railroad  offi- 
cials may  be  ordered. 

IX.     Staff  Duties. 

Article  141. 

The  staffs  shall  be  called  out  every  two  years  for 
tactical  maneuvers  for  the  duration  of  eleven  days. 
These  maneuvers  are  to  be  directed  alternately  by  the 
Army  Corps  Commander  and  Division  Commanders. 

The  Military  Department  shall  designate  the  staff 
officers  who  are  to  take  part  in  those  exercises. 

Article  142. 

Every  two  years  strategic  maneuvers  shall  be  held. 
They  are  to  be  directed  by  an  officer  of  the  Military 
Department,  Army  Corps  and  Division  Commanders, 
their  chiefs  of  staff,  the  Fortress  Commanders  and  other 
officers  designated  by  the  Military  Department.  Such 
exercises  shall  last  eleven  days. 

203 


Article  143. 

The  officers  of  the  Engineers'  Corps  at  the  disposal 
of  the  Engineer  Branch  are  to  be  called  for  work  in 
that  branch. 

X.     Inspection. 

Article  144. 

The  inspection  of  schools  and  courses  shall  take  place 
as  follows: 

1.  The  repetition  courses  by  the  immediate  superior 
of  the  commander  of  the  course. 

2.  Exercises  directed  by  any  Army  Corps  Com- 
mander or  a  Chief  of  Branch  by  the  Chief  of 
the  Military  Department. 

3.  Schools  and  courses  directed  by  Fortress  Com- 
manders are  to  be  inspected  by  the  commander 
of  the  army  corps,  in  whose  territory  the  fortress 
lies. 

4.  Schools  and  courses  held  in  the  district  of  an 
army  corps,  Division  or  garrison  by  the  proper 
commander  of  that  unit. 

5.  All  other  schools  by  an  Army  Corps,  Division 
Commander  or  Chief  of  Branch  designated  by 
the  Military  Department. 

Article  145. 

If  an  inspector  be  prevented  from  acting  in  his  ca- 
pacity the  Military  Department  shall  designate  a  sub- 
stitute. 


204 


FOURTH  PART* 

MILITARY  ADMINISTRATION. 

I.     Federation  and  the  Cantons. 

Article  146. 
The  Federal  Council  shall  direct  the  military  adminis- 
tration.    The  part  of  military  administration  assigned 
to  the  Cantons  shall  be  directed  by  them  under  super- 
vision of  the  Federal  government. 

Article  147. 

The  Federal  Council  shall  have  power  to  enforce 
the  execution  of  these  articles. 

It  shall  approve  the  service  and  drill  regulations  with 
the  exception  of  the  administrative  regulations,  the  ap- 
proval of  which  is  subject  to  the  Federal  Assembly. 

Article  148. 

The  Federal  Council  shall  divide  the  territory  of  the 
Federation  into  districts  of  Divisions  in  such  a  way  that 
the  units  of  a  Division  will  be  recruited  from  the  males 
of  such  districts. 

The  borders  of  a  district  should,  wherever  possible, 
be  identical  with  Cantonal  borders. 

Article  149. 
The   Cantons   shall   be   divided   into   districts    from 
which  an  infantry  regiment  of  the  First  Line  can  be 
recruited.    Wherever  it  is  impossible  to  make  regimental 

205 


districts,  districts  may  be  formed  for  battalions  or  com- 
panies. The  Federal  Council  shall  designate  the  district 
lines  when  such  are  submitted  by  the  Cantons. 

Article  150. 

The  Cantons  must  demand  of  each  citizen,  tempora- 
rily or  permanently  residing  within  its  borders,  proof 
of  having  performed  his  obligations.  This  proof  should 
be  contained  in  the  citizen's  "Service  Booklet."  Every 
time  a  change  of  temporary  or  permanent  residence  is 
made,  permission  therefore  must  be  reported  to  the  mili- 
tary authorities  of  the  Canton,  from  which  the  man  was 
recruited  or,  if  the  man  be  assigned  to  a  federal  unit, 
to  the  Chief  of  Branch. 

Article  151. 

Each  Canton  shall  keep  a  roster  of  all  the  men  of 
military  age  residing  therein;  these  rosteis  are  the  basis 
of  military  control  and  information. 

Each  Canton  shall  keep  a  roster  of  men  assigned  to 
auxiliary  service.  Corps  rosters  of  staffs  and  troop  units 
are  kept  by  the  Federal  and  Cantonal  military  authori- 
ties, as  well  as  by  the  commanders  of  staffs  and  units. 
The  Federal  Council  shall  adopt  ordinances  regulating 
the  control  over  these  bodies,  and  supervising  proper 
enactment. 

Article  152. 

Each  Canton  shall  appoint  "District  Commanders"  to 
keep  the  Cantonal  roster  and  conduct  necessary  com- 
munication with  men  under  military  obligations.  Ac- 
cording to  need,  the  districts  may  be  divided  into  sections, 
with  a  "Section  Chief"  at  the  head  of  each. 

206 


Article  153. 

The  Cantons  shall  furnish  the  companies  and  bat- 
talions of  infantry,  squadrons  of  dragoons,  as  well  as 
the  units  and  battalions  of  Landsturm  and  the  auxiliary 
service. 

Where  the  effective  strength  is  insufficient  to  form 
whole  battalions,  companies  or  squadrons  of  dragoons, 
the  Federal  Assembly  shall  fix  the  formation. 

Article  154. 
The  Federation  shall  form  all  units  and  staffs  not 
furnished  by  the  Cantons,  and  organize  the  branches  of 
the  service. 

Article  155. 
The  necessary  officers,  non-commissioned  officers  and 
soldiers  of  other  branches  of  arms  are  to  be  assigned 
to  the  Cantonal  units  by  the  Federation. 

Article  156. 

The  Cantons  shall  appoint  officers  of  Cantonal  units 
and  infantry  officers  of  the  staffs  of  fusileer  battalions. 

The  Federal  Council  shall  appoint  the  staff  officers 
of  battalions  that  are  made  up  from  more  than  one 
Canton. 

The  Federal  Council  shall  appoint  the  officers  of 
companies  recruited  from  more  than  one  Canton. 

The  Federal  Council  shall  appoint  all  those  officers 
which  the  Cantons  are  not  entitled  to  appoint. 

Article  157. 
The  Federal  Council  shall  assign  officers  and  non- 
commissioned officers  who  are  over  the  quota  required 
in  any  Canton  to  those   Cantons  that  are  not  able  to 
furnish  the  required  number. 

207 


Article  158. 

The  Federation  shall  furnish  the  armament,  the 
corps  equipment  and  other  war  material. 

The  Cantons  shall  furnish  the  equipment  of  the  Can- 
tonal and  Federal  troops  according  to  the  Federal  speci- 
fications. 

Equipment  for  a  whole  year,  as  well  as  a  reserve 
equipment  of  arms  and  personal  equipment,  must  always 
be  on  hand. 

The  Federal  Assembly  shall  fix  the  amount  to  be 
paid  to  the  Cantons  for  personal  equipment,  its  replacing 
and  upkeep. 

Article  159. 

The  Cantons  shall  supervise  and  maintain  the  corps 
equipment  of  the  Cantonal  and  Federal  troop  units. 

The  Federation  shall  supervise  and  maintain  all  other 
corps  material. 

Arms  and  articles  of  equipment  taken  over  from  sol- 
diers must  be  kept  in  good  condition  and  stored  in  such 
manner  as  to  assure  a  quick  re-equipment  in  case  of 
mobilization. 

Articles  of  equipment  returned  by  soldiers  leaving 
service  before  finishing  their  military  obligations,  are  to 
be  laid  aside  for  reserve  equipment. 

Article  160. 
The  Federal  Council  shall  issue  calls  for  service.   The 
calls  for  service  of  troops  are  to  be  issued  by  the  Can- 
tonal military  authorities. 

Article  161. 
Applications  for  dispensation   from  service  shall  be 
decided  by  the  Cantonal  military  authorities  for  Cantonal 

208 


troops,  and  by  the  Federal  military  authorities  for  Feder- 
al troops. 

Rules  governing  dispensations  are  established  by  the 
Federal  Council.  If  an  officer  applies  for  dispensation 
from  service  his  immediate  superior  officer  has  to  be 
consulted. 

Article  162. 

If  a  Canton  fails  to  fulfill  any  obligation  herein  the 
Federation  shall  perform  such  obligation  and  assess  the 
cost  against  such  Canton. 

Article  163. 

Personal  equipment,  armament,  all  corps  and  war 
material  shall  be  at  the  disposal  of  the  Federation  and 
at  the  disposal  of  the  Cantons,  according  to  their  needs, 
but  subject  to  the  Federal  laws. 

Article  164. 

Food  and  drink  for  troops  in  Federal  service  shall 
never  be  subject  to  any  Cantonal  or  municipal  taxation. 
Cantonal  or  municipal  monopolies  may  not  be  made  ap- 
plicable to  dealings  in  the  necessities  for  troops. 

Military  institutions  or  military  works  as  well  as 
Federal  military  properties  shall  be  free  of  any  Cantonal 
or  municipal  taxes.  Contracts,  serving  the  national  de- 
fense, shall  not  be  subject  to  any  Cantonal  fees  or 
permits. 

Article  165. 

Service  cycles  of  cyclists  and  automobiles  for  milita- 
ry purposes  shall  be  exempt  from  Cantonal  taxes  or 
fees. 

2og 


Article  i66. 
The  Cantons  shall  collect  the  military  taxes,  and  de- 
liver half  of  the  net  collection  to  the  Federation. 

II.     The  Military  Administration  of  the  Federation. 

Article  167. 

The  Chief  of  the  Swiss  Military  Department  (a 
member  of  the  Federal  Council)  shall  direct  the  Bureau 
of  the  Military  Department. 

The  Bureau  shall  execute  the  orders  of  the  Chief  of 
the  Military  Department  and  prepare  his  recommenda- 
tions for  the  Federal  Council;  it  shall  assume  the  cor- 
respondence of  the  Department  and  keep  the  archives. 

The'  Secretary  of  the  National  Defense  Commission 
shall  be  attached  to  the  Bureau  of  the  Military  Depart- 
ment. 

Article  168. 

Subordinate  to  the  Military  Department  shall  be  the 
Chiefs  of  the  Branches  of  Service: 

The  Chiefs  of  the  General  Staff; 

The  Chiefs  of  the  Branches  of  Infantry,  Cavalry, 
Artillery,  Engineers,  and  Fortress  Department 
(Chief  of  Branch)  ; 

Chief  Surgeon ; 

Chief  Veterinary; 

Chief  of  Commissary; 

Chief  of  Military  Technical  Department; 

Chief  of  War  Material; 

Chief  of  the  Topographical  Service; 

Chief  Remount  officer. 

Assigned  to  the  Chiefs  of  Branch  shall  be  the  neces- 
sary officials  and  employees. 

310 


Article  169. 
The  duties  of  the  Chiefs  of  Branch  are  as  follows: 

1.  To  report  and  recommend  on  all  affairs  concern- 
ing their  department; 

2.  To  prepare  manuals,  ordinances  and  legislative 
bills; 

3.  To  prepare  annual  budgets  of  their  Branch  and 
annual  reports  of  their  business. 

The  Chiefs  of  Branch  must  transact  the  business  of 
the  Federal  with  the  Cantonal  Military  Department  and 
with  the  officers.  They  execute  the  orders  of  the  De- 
partment and  transact  such  business,  which  by  orders  of 
the  annual  budget  and  general  rules,  established  by  the 
Department,  is  committed  to  them. 

Article  170. 

The  functions  of  the  General  Staff  Department  are 
as  follows: 

1.  Preparation  for  mobilization  and  disposition  of 
the  army  in  case  of  war,  and  general  preparation 
for  war; 

2.  Approval  and  recommendation  in  all  matters  per- 
taining to  National  Defense,  to  the  army  as  a 
whole  and  to  the  Army  Staff; 

3.  Approval  of  recommendation  relating  to  ma- 
neuvers of  large  units  and  exercises  of  the  higher 
staffs ; 

4.  Organization  and  conduct  of  schools  and  courses 
for  officers  of  the  General  Staff  and  staff  secre- 
taries, issuing  the  certificate  of  ability  for  cap- 
tains of  the  General  Staff  and  staff  secretaries; 
consideration   of   the   application    for   dispensing 


with  service  of  officers  of  the  General  Staff  and 
staff   secretaries ; 

5.  Recommendation  for  assigning  officers  of  the 
General  Staff  and  staff  secretaries  to  the  staffs 
after  consultation  with  the  field  officers; 

6.  Maintenance  of  the  effective  strength  of  the 
General  Staff  corps; 

7.  Preparation  of  the  railroad  transportation  and 
territorial  service,  the  field  post  and  field  tele- 
graph departments,  training  of  officers  and  the 
personnel  of  these  branches; 

8.  Gathering  for  the  emergency  of  war :  Formation 
concerning  the  Swiss  and  foreign  armies,  miU- 
tary  statistics  and  geographical  condition  of  the 
country  and  neighboring  countries; 

9.  Supervision  of  the  Military  Library  and  the  stock 

of  army  maps. 

Article  171. 

The  Chiefs  of  Branch  of  Infantry,  Cavalry,  Artillery, 
Engineers  and  Fortress  Department  shall  have  the  fol- 
lowing prerogatives : 

1.  To  transact  the  business  of  their  branch; 

2.  To  administer  units,  staffs  and  auxiliary  service, 
formed  by  the  Federation ; 

3.  To  supervise  the  training  of  their  branch,  the 
general  organization  of  schools  and  courses  and 
the  managment  of  such,  except  as  provided  for 
in  article  109; 

4.  To  consider  application  for  dispensation,  if  such 
are  not  within  jurisdiction  of  the  Cantons; 

5.  To  approve  and  forward  matters  concerning  offi- 
cers   (nomination,    promotion,    assignment,    dis- 

212 


charge,  etc.),  issue  certificates  of  ability  for  sub- 
altern officers  and  captains  named  for  promotion. 

The  following  officers  shall  have  the  same  powers: 
Chief  Surgeon  for  his  branch ; 
Chief  Veterinary  for  his  branch; 
Chief  of  Commissary  for  his  branch. 

Article  172. 
The  Infantry  Branch  shall  supervise  the  organization 
and  conduct  of  the  central  schools,  preparatory  military 
courses,  and  all  rifle  shooting. 

Article  173. 
The  Cavalry  Branch  shall  supervise  the  purchase  and 
training  of  horses,  turn  them  over  to  the  cavalry  per- 
sonnel,   control    and    administer    all    such   horses,    and 
supervise  the  remount  depots. 

Article  174. 
The  Artillery  Branch  shall  administer  the  training  of 
Train  troops,  training  of  orderlies  for  officers  and  their 
assignment  to  staffs  and  units. 

Article  175. 
The  Engineer  Branch  shall  supervise  the  work  of 
all  engineer  officers  in  preparation  for  war  in  conformity 
with  the  directions  of  the  General  Staff;  supervise  the 
department  for  mines,  care  for  the  stock  of  explosives, 
instruments  and  material  for  demoUtion,  and  prepare 
fortifications  for  time  of  war. 

Article  176. 
The  Fortress  Branch  shall  maintain,  complete  and 
supervise  permanent   fortifications,   take   charge  of  the 

213 


Bureau  of  Construction  of  Fortifications  and  the  Bureau 
for  Firing  of  Fortifications. 

Fort  guards  protecting  and  maintaining  the  fortifi- 
cation works,  shall  be  governed  by  regulations  adopted 
by  the  Federal  Council. 

Article  177. 
The  Sanitary  Branch  shall  direct  the  whole  sanitary 
service,  including  the  voluntary  auxiliary  service  of  this 
branch,  military  insurance  and  physical  examination  of 
all  males  who  have  reached  their  19th  year. 

Article  178. 
The  Veterinary  Branch  shall  supervise  all  the  veteri- 
nary service,  appraise  the  service  horses  and  fix  their 
depreciation  in  value  and  decide  all  claims  pertaining  to 
such,  as  well  as  train  and  assign  farriers. 

Article  179. 

The  Commissary  Branch  shall  be  headquarters  for 
the  whole  system  of  accounts  and  subsistence  of  the 
Army.  It  shall  furnish  and  care  for  all  food  material 
and  replace  stock. 

The  Army  storehouses  and  supply  depots  shall  be 
under  its  care,  as  well  as  the  administration  of  the  Feder- 
al barracks.  It  shall  supervise  the  Military  Department's 
printing  office  and  control  the  entire  stock  in  hands  of 
the  administrative  Department  of  War  Material. 

Article  180. 
The  Military  Technical  Branch  shall  take  care  of  all 
business  pertaining  to  armament  and  improvement  of 
war  material.  It  shall  furnish  the  personal  equipment 
not  furnished  by  the  Cantons,  adopt  ordinances  and 
manuals  for  war  material  and  personal  equipment,  turn 

214 


over  the  finished  material  to  the  Department  of  War 
Material  and  of  Fortress. 

It  shall  be  in  charge  of  the  military  workshops, 
powder  factories,  experimental  stations  for  guns  and 
small  firearms  and  shall  control  ammunition. 

Article  i8i. 

The  Department  for  War  Material  shall  supervise 
the  storing,  inventory  and  distribution  of  the  material 
received  from  the  Military  Technical  Department. 

It  shall  distribute  and  turn  over  to  the  Cantons  all 
such  material  belonging  to  Cantonal  units,  care  for  the 
material  remaining  with  the  Federation,  direct  the 
service  in  the  Federal  arsenals,  munition  and  explosives 
depots,  and  exercise  supervision  over  the  service  in  the 
Cantonal  arsenals  and  munition  depots. 

It  shall  provide  military  schools  and  courses  with  the 
necessary  material  and  ammunition. 

The  Department  for  War  Material  shall  exercise 
supervision  over  the  personal  equipment  furnished  by 
the  Federation,  especially  the  personal  equipment  and 
armament  of  officers.  It  shall  supervise  the  Cantonal 
stock  of  equipment,  and  control  the  arms  and  personal 
equipment  of  the  troops. 

Article  182. 
The  Department  for  Topography  Service  shall  be  in 
charge  of   surveys  and  make  and  issue  maps   for  the 
Army.     It  may  also  draw  up  maps  not  strictly  for  mili- 
tary purposes. 

Article  183. 
The  Remount  Department  shall  purchase  and  deliver 
mounts  for  officers,  and  furnish  horses  for  the  instruc- 
tion service. 

215 


Article  184. 
The    Federal    Council   by    resolution   may    combine 
any  branch  of  the  Military  Department,  or  may  order 
changes  in  the  duties  of  the  branches. 

III.     Command. 

Article  185. 

The  Federal  administration  must  be  organized  so  as 

to  secure  for  the  commanders  of  Army  units  and  tactical 

and  elementary  units  the  prestige  due  their  command 

in  order  to  maintain  proper  discipline  among  the  troops. 

Article  186. 

The  commanders  of  army,  tactical  and  elementary 
units  shall  be  responsible  for  the  constant  effective 
strength  of  their  troops. 

They  shall  control  the  presence  and  condition  of 
personal  equipment  and  arms,  as  well  as  the  corps  equip- 
ment of  their  troops. 

Article  187. 

Commanders  of  Army  units  must  convince  themselves 
personally  of  the  standard  of  training,  efficiency  and 
readiness  of  their  units. 

They  shall  have  the  power  to  require  reports  from 
their  subordinates. 

They  may  promulgate,  personally  or  through  their 
chiefs  of  staff,  measures  for  the  assembly  and  mobili- 
zation of  their  troops. 

Article  188. 
Reports  and  recommendations  of  troop  commanders 
are  to  be  sent  to  superior  military  authorities  through 
military  channels. 

216 


These  recommendations  should  be  given  due  conside- 
ration in  making  up  the  annual  budget,  in  regulations 
governing  recruiting,  in  compiling  programs  for  training 
and  decrees  calling  troops  to  military  schools  and  special 
courses. 

Article  189. 

An  ordinance  of  the  Federal  Council  shall  regulate 
the  keeping  of  records  of  service  and  qualifications  of 
officers  and  non-commissioned  officers,  as  well  as  the 
control  of  effective  strength  of  troops  within  the  Army 
units. 

Such  an  ordinance  shall  determine  the  spheres  of 
activity  and  the  service  relations  of  troop  commanders. 

It  shall  regulate  the  service  of  the  clerical  force  of 
the  bureau  attached  to  commanders  of  Army  units. 

Article  190. 
The  Federal  Council  shall  fix  the  allowance  for  the 
commanders  of  the  Army  units. 

Article  191. 

Important  questions  concerning  the  National  Defense 
are  to  be  deliberated  on  by  a  Commission  of  National 
Defense,  consisting  of  the  Chief  of  the  MiHtary  Depart- 
ment, acting  as  chairman ;  the  Army  Corps  Commanders, 
the  Chief  of  General  Staff  and  the  Chief  of  Branch  of 
Infantry. 

The  functions  of  the  Commission  shall  cease  as  soon 
as  a  General  is  appointed. 

Article  192. 
In  the  proceedings  of  the  Commission  which  pertain 
to  the  issuance  of  certificates  of  ability,  as  well  as  the 

217 


recommendation  for  promotion  and  assignment  of  staff 
officers  to  be  appointed  by  the  Federation,  and  in  pro- 
ceedings relative  to  discharge  of  staff  officers  from  their 
command,  the  Division  Commanders  and  Chiefs  of 
Branches  which  are  not  members  of  the  Commission 
shall  likewise  take  part. 

Article  193. 

The  recommendations  of  Chiefs  of  Branch  and  re- 
spective troop  commanders  concerning  officers  to  be 
promoted  and  assigned  by  the  Commission  of  National 
Defense  shall  be  submitted  to  said  Commission. 

The  secretary  of  the  Commission  shall  collect  and 
classify  all  records  of  officers  of  all  arms  who  have 
reached  the  rank  of  captain.  These  records  shall  show 
the  assignments  and  the  service  performed. 

These  records  shall  be  at  the  disposal  of  the  Com- 
mission of  National  Defense. 

Article  194. 

To  discuss  measures  of  efficiency  and  improvements 
in  military  matters  a  conference  shall  take  place  at  least 
once  a  year,  between  the  Chief  of  the  Military  Depart- 
ment, acting  as  chairman,  and  the  commanders  of  army 
imits.  In  this  conference  the  Chiefs  of  Branch  desig- 
nated by  the  Military  Department  shall  also  participate. 


218 


FIFTH  PART* 

ACTIVE  SERVICE. 
I.     General  Directions. 

Article  195. 

It  shall  be  the  duty  of  the  Army  to  uphold  the  in- 
dependence of  the  country  against  foreign  aggression, 
and  to  maintain  peace  and  order  within  (article  2  of  the 
Constitution  of  May  29,  1874). 

Article  196. 

The  Army  shall  be  at  the  disposal  of  the  Federation. 
The  Cantons  may  make  use  of  the  troops  of  their  terri- 
tory in  an  emergency  in  case  the  Federation  has  not 
provided  therefore. 

Article  197. 

Cantons  shall  bear  the  cost  of  levies  of  troops  for 
Cantonal  use. 

Pay,  subsistence  and  lodging  of  such  troops  shall  be 
furnished  by  the  Cantons  in  accordance  with  the  Federal 
regulations. 

Article  198. 

The  Federal  Council  shall  order  the  call  of  troops 
for  Federal  service,  and  supervise  the  execution  of  the 
call. 

All  troops  called  for  active  Federal  Service  shall  take 
the  oath  of  war. 

219 


Article  199. 


The  Federal  Council  may  order  troops  on  picket. 
When    placed    on    picket    no    military    person    shall 
vt  the  country   without  permission  of   the  military 


leave  the  country 
authorities 


Article  200. 


The  order  to  place  a  troop  unit  on  picket  shall  in- 
clude all  officers,  non-commissioned  officers  and  privates 
of  the  unit,  if  no  limitation  is  contained  in  the  order. 

Article  201. 

In  case  of  mobilization  the  Federal  Council  may  put 
under  the  military  law  all  the  officials,  employees  and 
workmen  of  the  miHtary  administration,  establishments 
and  workshops,  as  well  as  those  of  the  public  transpor- 
tation services. 

Article  202. 

In  case  of  a  call  for  active  service  the  Federal  Council 
may  put  the  employees  of  the  military  administration  and 
works  as  well  as  those  of  the  public  transportation  under 
the  military  laws. 

Article  203. 

In  time  of  war  citizens  free  of  military  service  shall 
put  themselves  at  the  disposal  of  the  country  and  do  all 
in  their  power  for  the  defense  of  the  country. 

In  time  of  war  or  danger  of  war,  every  person  shall 
put  his  personal  and  real  property  at  the  disposal  of  the 
troop  commanders  or  military  authorities  for  the  purpose 
of  military  emergencies.  The  Federation  shall  compen- 
sate in  full  all  just  claims. 

220 


II.    Commander-in-Chief. 

Article  204. 

As  soon  as  the  mobilization  of  an  important  part  of 
the  Army  is  ordered  the  Federal  Assembly  shall  appoint 
a  General. 

The  General  shall  be  the  Commander-in-Chief  of  the 
Army.  He  shall  be  instructed  by  the  Federal  Council 
as  to  the  object  of  the  mobilization. 

To  relieve  the  General  of  his  duties  before  the  troops 
are  distributed  at  proper  strategic  points,  shall  require 
serious  cause,  and  the  reasons  to  be  set  forth  in  a  res- 
olution of  the  Federal  Council. 

Article  205. 
The  Chief  of  the  General  Staff  shall  be  appointed  by 
the  Federal  Council  after  consultation  with  the  General. 

Article  206. 
In  case  of  mobilization  the  Swiss  Military  Depart- 
ment shall  assume  command  of   the  Army  until  such 
time  as  a  General  is  elected. 

Article  207. 

Should  the  General  be  prevented  from  commanding, 
the  senior  Army  Corps  Commander,  and  in  case  of  his 
absence  the  Chief  of  the  General  Staff,  shall  be  in 
command. 

Article  208. 

The  General  shall  order  all  military  measures  he  con- 
siders necessary  to  be  carried  out, 

He  shall  dispose  at  his  pleasure  of  all  the  military 
power  and  resources  of  the  country. 

221 


Article  209. 

The  General  may  fix  the  order  of  battle  without 
being  bound  by  the  definite  provisions  of  this  law. 

He  shall  be  authorized  to  relieve  officers  of  their 
command  and  appoint  officers  to  temporary  commands. 

Article  210. 
Should  the  General  demand  the  mobilization  of  addi- 
tional army  units  the  Federal  Council  shall  call  them  out. 

Article  211. 
The  Swiss  Military  Department  shall  direct  the  terri- 
torial service. 

III.     Horses  and  Vehicles. 

Article  212. 
The  Federation  shall  have  the  right  to  use  all  horses, 
mules  and  means  of  transportation  within  its  territory 
in  case  of  mobilization. 

Article  213. 

Should  the  National  Defense  require  the  placing  on 
picket  of  horses,  mules  and  other  means  of  transpor 
tation  the  Federal  Council  shall  order  so  and  meantime 
place  an  embargo  thereon. 

When  the  picket  is  decreed  the  municipalities  shall 
immediately  bring  up  to  date  their  records  of  controls 
of  horses  within  their  limits. 

From  the  day  of  announcement  of  the  picket  decree 
no  one  in  possession  of  a  horse,  mule  or  other  means 
of  transportation,  be  such  in  his  own  name  or  in  that  of 
a  third  person,  shall  be  permitted  to  dispose  of  the  same 
without  permission  of  the  military  authorities. 


A  fine  of  from  lOO  to  10,000  francs  and  imprison- 
ment not  to  exceed  six  months  may  be  imposed  by  the 
Federal  Penal  Court  for  violation  of  this  section. 

Article  214. 

With  the  promulgation  of  a  picket  decree  an  exami- 
nation of  all  horses,  mules  and  means  of  transportation 
as  to  their  military  value  shall  take  place.  Such  material 
as  is  found  unfit  for  mihtary  use  may  be  sold  by  the 
owner. 

Meanwhile,  the  assignment  of  horses,  mules  and 
means  of  transportation  to  the  staffs  and  units  shall 
take  place. 

Article  215. 

The  orders  for  mobilization  of  horses,  mules  and 
other  means  of  transportation  are  combined  in  the  regu- 
lations of  mobilization. 

Municipalities  shall  be  required  to  have  all  horses, 
mules  and  other  means  of  transportation  fit  for  service 
in  time  and  at  the  designated  corps-gathering  places  at 
the  disposal  of  the  Place  Commander. 

If  the  number  of  horses  and  mules  is  greater  than 
required,  the  surplus  shall  be  sent  to  horse  depots. 

Article  216. 
The  Federation   shall  pay  to  the   municipalities  in- 
demnity for  such  damage  as  may  result  from  the  use 
of  horses,  mules  and  other  means  of  transportation. 

IV.     Transportation  Service  in  Time  of  War. 
Article  217. 

In  time  of  war  or  danger  of  war  the  Federal  Council, 
or  the  General  after  his  appointment,  may  decree  the 
operation  of  the  railroads  for  war  service. 

223 


In  that  case  the  right  of  disposition  of  railroads,  their 
material,  the  personnel  of  their  employees  and  the  di- 
rection of  their  operation  is  transferred  to  the  military 
authorities.  The  personnel  shall  not  leave  the  service 
and  shall  come  under  the  military  laws. 

Article  218. 

The  Federal  Council,  or  the  General  when  appointed, 
may  order  the  construction  of  tracks,  buildings  or  other 
installations,  or  the  destruction  of  such. 

Article  219. 

The  Federation  shall  reimburse  private  corporations 
for  damages  caused  by  military  necessity. 

Disagreement  as  to  the  amount  to  be  paid  by  the 
Federation  to  private  corporations  shall  be  decided  by 
the  Federal  Court. 

Article  220. 

The  aforesaid  regulations  apply  to  steamship  com- 
panies, also. 

Enacted  by  the  Standerat, 
Bern,  April  12,  1907. 

The  President:  Adalbert  Wirz. 
The  Clerk:  Schatzmann. 

Also  enacted  by  the  Nationalrat, 
Bern,  April  12,  1907. 

The  President:  Camille  Decoppet. 
The  Clerk:  Ringier. 

224 


THE  front  page  illustration  represents  Helvetia,  Switzerland, 
standing  well  armed  "In  the  midst  of  the  conflagration  of 
the  peoples,"  and  with  her  shield  and  sword  calmly  fending  off 
the  furies  of  war  from  the  woman  and  the  children  who  seek 
protection  by  her  side.  This  historical  and  beautiful  work  is  by 
Otto  Schweizer,  of  Philadelphia,  born  a  Swiss  and  naturalized 
here  and  a  personal  friend  of  the  author  of  this  book. 

It  represents  the  aspirations  not  only  of  the  people  of  Swit- 
zerland but  of  our  own  Republic  as  well.  Switzerland  is  on  the 
right  flank  of  France  and  on  the  left  flank  of  Germany.  Her 
neutrality  is  respected,  her  territory  is  uninvaded,  and  her  insti- 
tutions hardly  threatened  by  the  greatest  war  of  history  now 
raging  around  her. 

Like  our  country,  Switzerland  owes  her  free  institutions,  in 
large  measure,  to  the  fact  that  those  who  sought  freedom  found 
protection  there  in  the  distance  or  geographical  condition  of  the 
region.  But  military  science  of  to-day  has  overcome  all  natural 
defenses  and  distance  is  as  nothing  to  the  modern  means  of 
transportation.  The  Swiss  Republic,  more  immediately  menaced 
by  imperial  dangers  and  imperial  arms  than  our  Republic  and  so 
much  longer  exposed  to  those  dangers  has  been  more  stimulated 
to  prepare  a  defense  than  we,  perhaps  more  so  because  she  has 
not  our  great  numbers  to  create  overconfidence.  Expert  in 
marksmanship,  disciplined  and  prepared  to  the  minutest  detail, 
the  highly  efficient  Swiss  army  of  trained  citizen  soldiers  pre- 
serves and  does  not  threaten  the  liberties  of  the  Swiss  people. 
The  Swiss  are  free  because  they  are  prepared;  they  are  neutral 
because  they  are  free  and  prepared. 

There  are  other  features  of  this  work  worthy  of  attention. 
The  woman  and  the  children  have  been  in  danger  and  distress, 
but  one  of  the  children  has  already  dried  its  eyes  and  is  looking 
up  with  childhood's  instant  appreciation  to  the  figure  that  pro- 
tects it.  But  look  at  the  face  of  this  Swiss  Goddess  of  Liberty 
and  then  at  the  faces  of  the  two  demons  of  war.  The  latter, 
convulsed  with  passion,  are  oblivious  to  persons  or  directions. 
They  are  furies  of  war  performing  a  dance  of  destruction.  To 
them  there  is  no  possible  comprehension  or  sympathy  with  the 
joy  of  service,  the  sanity  and  faith  expressed  upon  the  face  of 
the  great  central  figure  which  so  clearly  reveals  preparedness 
protecting  both  motherhood  and  childhood  under  a  great  shield. 

There  is  so  much  of  the  history  of  the  free  peoples  in  this 
work  of  art;  there  is  so  much  of  the  expression  of  the  duties 
and  opportunities  of  neutrality;  there  is  so  much  in  common 
between  the  position  of  Switzerland  to-day  and  the  position  of 
our  country  that  it  is  a  fitting  illustration  showing  the  efficiency 
of  the  citizen  soldiery  of  Switzerland. 

225 


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MAY.12'64-19Plv1 


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Kev*  VJ 


TX? 


MAY 


f3'65-i> 


JAN     6  1978 


HxC.  CiR.01:L  U  77 


pr 


LD  21A-50m-ll,'62 
(D3279sl0)476B 


General  Library 

University  of  California 

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